T
rr
irii
HEAD OF EOYAL BENGAL TIGER.
MOUNTED BY THE AUTIIOR.
,
TAXIDEEMY
AND
ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING
A COMPLETE HANDBOOK FOR THE AMATEUR TAXIDERMIST,
COLLECTOR, OSTEOLOGIST, MUSEUM- BUILDER,
SPORTSMAN, AND TRAVELLER
BY
WILLIAM T. HOENADAY
For eight years Chief Taxidermist of the u. S. National Museum; for seven years
Zoological Collector ana Taxidermist for Wctni's Natural Scit-nce Establish-
ment; late Superintendent of the National Zoological 1'ark;
author of " Two Years in the Jungle,'' etc.
WITH CHAPTERS ON
COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS
BY W. J. HOLLAND, PH.D., D.D.
Cltancellur Western 1'nirfinit// of /'t»n.-,i/li-'i>i«i ; l'>'miii,-nt i-j ///<• .!»/,/, ,/<;/ nf Xdence and Ait c;
PMsbwg.and the Iron City Micronc<iin,-nl Su<-,f-/,/: i.nr. .W<ml#roJ t/te Ent. tioc.
of France; Fellow of fie Ent. Sue. «/ l.undon, etc.
ILLUSTRATED BY CHARLES BRADFORD HUDSON
AND OTOEU AKTI~I>
24 plaice an^ 85 "Ccjt 3llustiations
FOURTH EDITION
NEW YOIIK
CHARLES SCRIBNEirS SONS
1894
COPYRIGHT, ISfll BY
CHARLES SCRIBNEK'S SONS
TROW DIRECTORY
PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANY
NEW YORK
Co
G. BROWN GOODE, LL D.
WHOSE LIBERAL POLICY HAS HONE SO MUCH
FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF AMERICAN TAXIDERMY
THIS BOOK IS INSCRIBED AS AN EXPRESSION
OF APPRECIATION OF HIS VALUABLE PfUI.IC SERVICES IN THE
ORGANIZATION, DIRECTION, AND DEVELOPMENT OF
THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
AND ALSO OF
SINCERE PERSONAL REGARD
PREFACE.
IN these heydays of popular zoology, when eager young nut
uralists are coming to the front in crowds, and fine new scien
tific museums are starting up on every hand, there is small
need to apologize for the appearance of a work designed ex
pressly for the naturalist and museum-builder. Had justice
been done, some one would have written this book ten years
ago.
The rapid and alarming destruction of all forms of wild ani-
mal life which is now going on furiously throughout the entire
world, renders it imperatively necessary for those who would
build up great zoological collections to be up and doing before
any more of the leading species are exterminated. It is
already too late to collect wild specimens of the American
bison, Califoruian elephant seal, West Indian seal, great auk,
and Labrador duck. Very soon it will also be too late to col-
lect walrus, manatee, fur seal, prong-horn antelope, elk. mouse,
mountain sheep, and mountain goat. All along the Atlantic
coast and in Florida the ducks are being exterminated for the
metropolitan markets, and the gulls, terns, her. ms, egrets,
ibises, and spoonbills are being slaughtered wholesale for the
equally bloodthirsty goddess of Fashion. If the naturalist
would gather representatives of all these forms for perpetual
preservation, and future study, he must set about it at once.
This work is offered as my contribution to the science of
/oology and the work of the museum-builder. It is entirely
"an affair of the heart," and my only desire in regard t<> it i-
that it may be the means of materially increasing the world's
store of well-selected and well-preserved examples of the beau
tiful and interesting animal forms that now inhabit the earth
and its waters. The sight of a particularly line animal, either
Vlll PUEFACE.
alive or dead, excites v/ithin me feeling's of admiration that
often amount to genuine affection ; and the study and preserva-
tion of such forms has for sixteen years been my chief delight.
In these pages I have sought to give, in clear language, the
detailed information which I have found deplorably lacking in
all " manuals " on this subject that I have ever seen, save one,
in French, published many years ago, and which, while very
tiresome to write out, are precisely what the practical worker
wants. I hold a permanent grudge against those who have
written b afore me 011 the subjects here treated of, because of
what they did not write. The average book on taxidermy con-
tains four times too much " padding," and not one quarter
enough practical information. " If this be treason, make the
most of it."
The students of entomology are indebted to Dr. Holland for
his admirable chapters on Insects, and I leave them to make
their own acknowledgments. My own very sincere thanks are
hereby tendered him for his valuable contribution to this work,
thereby making it complete. I am also under obligations to
Mr. Charles Bradford Hudson, the accomplished artist, whose
skill has done so much to explain and embellish the text. The
spirit and interest with which he entered into his share of the
work very materially lightened and encouraged my own tardy
labors.
My thanks are also due to my valued friend, Mr. Frederic A.
Lucas, of the Department of Comparative Anatomy, National
Museum, and one of the founders of the Society of American
Taxidermists, for advice and assistance in the preparation of
the illustrations relating to work on skeletons. Mr. W. Harvey
Brown, Naturalist of the U. S. Eclipse Expedition to Africa,
kindly wrote for me nearly all of the chapter on " Mounting
Disarticulated Skeletons ; " Messrs. "William Palmer and John
W. Hendley, of the National Museum, also rendered me valu-
able services ; for all of which I gladly record here an expres-
sion of my thanks and appreciation.
Having already retired from taxidermy forever, this is posi-
tively my " last appearance " in this field.
W. T. H.
BUFFALO, N. Y.
CONTENTS.
Pixrt 1.
COLLECTING AND PRESERVING.
CHAPTER I.
PA OR
THE WORKER, AND THE WORK TO BE DONE, .... 1-7
CHAPTER II.
OUTFITS, AND HINTS ON HUNTINC, . . n-1!)
CHAPTER III.
How TO SELECT AND STUDY FRESH SI-KCIMENS, . . 2it-'J:>
CHAPTER IV.
TREATMENT OF THE SKINS OF SMALL MAMMALS, -j I 80
CHAPTER V.
COLLECTING AND PRESERVING THE SKINS <>K LAIK.I; MAMMALS, ::; I".
CHAITER VI.
COLLECTING SKINS OK SMALL P.iuns, . . . 46 •">?
CHAPTER VII.
COLLECTING SKINS OK LAK<;E Untns, .
CHAPTER VIII
COLLECTING RKI-TILKS, . >'><•
X CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IX.
PAGE
COLLECTING FISHES, 71-79
CHAPTER X.
COLLECTING MAKINE INVEUTEBKATES, 80-8!)
t
CHAPTER XI.
COLLECTING BIRDS' EGGS AND NESTS, 90-97
Part 2.
TAXIDEKMY.
CHAPTER XII.
THE LABORATORY AND ITS APPOINTMENTS, 99-101
CHAPTER XIII.
PRELIMINARY WORK IN MOUNTING MAMMALS, . . . 102-107
CHAPTER XIV.
PRINCIPLES OF UNIVERSAL APPLICATION IN MOUNTING THE HIGHER
VERTEBRATES, .... 108-114
CHAPTER XV.
MOUNTING SMALL MAMMALS, . . , 115-128
CHAPTER XVI.
MOUNTING LARGE MAMMALS : ORDINARY METHODS, . . . 129-139
CHAPTER XVII.
MOUNTING LARGE MAMMALS: THE CONSTRUCTION OF MANIKINS, 140-149
CHAPTER XVIII.
FINISHING MOUNTED MAMMALS, . . . 150-157
CONTENTS. XI
CHAPTER XIX.
PAGE
MOUNTING MAMMAL HEADS AS TROPHIES AND ORNAMENTS, . . 158-1 7<i
CHAPTER XX.
FACIAL EXPRESSION AND MOUTH MODELING, . . . 171-1 7s
CHAPTER XXI.
RELAXING DRY SKINS, OF BIRDS, . . . 179-1*;!
CHAPTER XXII.
MOUNTING SMALL BIRDS, . . . . 183-1 SMI
CHAPTER XXIII.
MOUNTING LARGE BIRDS, . 191-1H7
•
CHAPTER XXIV.
CLEANING THE PLUMAGE OF BIRDS, . 19* --'ni
CHAPTER XXV.
MOUNTING REPTILES, . 202--'i'7
CHAPTER XXVI
MOUNTING FISHES, ... . . 208 -'-!!•'>
CHAPTER XXVII.
MOUNTING LOBSTERS AND CRABS, . . 217-219
CHAPTER XXVIII.
ORNAMENTAL TAXIDERMY, . '-Mil -'-'v
CHAPTER \.\I\
GROUPS AND GROUPING, . . --'•' --"'
CHAPTER XXX.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GROUP-MAKIV..
Xll CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXXI. IAO::
GROUPS OF MAMMALS, . ... . . 240-247
CHAPTER XXXII.
GROUPS OF BIRDS AND REPTILES, . . . . . 248-250
CHAPTER XXXIII.
HINTS ON PAINTING MUSEUM SPECIMENS, .... 251 -£57
Part 3.
MAKING CASTS.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
PRINCIPLES OF UNIVERSAL APPLICATION IN MAKING MOULDS AND
CASTS, . ... . . . 259-267
CHAPTER XXXV.
CASTS OF MAMMALS, FISHES, AND REPTILES, 268-270
fllirt 4.
OSTEOLOGY.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
COLLECTING SKELETONS, . . 271-S81
CHAPTER XXXVII.
CLEANING LARGE SKELETONS BY MACERATING, . . . 282-2S4
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
CLEANING AND MOUNTING SMALL SKELETONS, . 285-205
CHAPTER XXXIX.
MOUNTING A LARGK DISARTICULATED SKELETON, .... 21)0-304
CONTENTS.
Xlll
Part 5.
THE COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF IN-
SECTS.
CHAPTER XL.
THK CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS,
CHAPTER XLI.
E<;r;s AND LARVVE: BREEDING AND REARING,
CHAPTER XLII.
COLLECTING IMAGOES,
CHAPTER XLIII.
PREPARATION, CARE, AND DISPLAY OF INSECTS,
PAGE
305-308
309-319
320-327
328-338
flart U.
GENERAL INFORMATION.
CHAPTER XLIV.
INSECT PESTS, AND POISONING.
* *
CHAPTER XLV.
UsEFt'L INFOIIMATION,
CHAPTER XLVI.
THE BEST BOOKS OF REFERENCE,
339-345
346-350
351-355
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
FULL-PAGE PLATES.
I. HEAD OF ROYAL BENGAL TIGER. (Frontispiece.) PAGE
II. Two PAGES FROM AN OLD FIELD NOTE-BOOK (Double Plate), . 22
III. MEASUREMENTS OF A LARGE MAMMAL, 38
IV. How TO CUT OPEN AND MOUNT A FISH, 76
V. PARING DOWN A LARGE MAMMAL SKIN, 104
VI. INTERIOR MECHANISM OF A HALF-MOUNTED WOLF, . . 132
VII. MANIKIN FOR BENGAL TIGER : FIRST STAGE, . . .142
VIII. MANIKIN FOR BENGAL TIGER : COMPLETED, .... 148
IX. MANIKIN FOR MALE AMERICAN BISON : HALF FINISHED, . 152
X. MANIKIN FOR AMERICAN BISON: COMPLETED, . . . 15(5
XI. HEAD OF PRONG-HORN ANTELOPE, 168
XII. WORKSHOP OF A BIRD TAXIDERMIST, 182
XIII. MOUNTED BIRD. WITH INTERIOR STRUCTURE EXPOSED, . . 192
XIV. MOUNTING AN ALLIGATOR : LAST STAGE, .... 206
XV. AMERICAN LOBSTER, 217
XVI. SPECIMENS OF ORNAMENTAL TAXIDERMY (Double Plate), . 222
XVII. A FIGHT IN THE TREE-TOPS, . . . . . . . 2:51
XVIII. GROUP OF COYOTES, .235
XIX. GROUP OF AMERICAN BISON (Double Plate), .... 240
XX. A LlGAMENTARY SKELETON, MOUNTED AND DRYING, . . 288
XXI. SKELETON OF AN AMERICAN BISON, 298
( FIG. 1.— BEATING THE BUSH, 320
\ FIG. 2.— A SUCCESSFUL STROKE, 320
\ FIG. 1. — BOTTLING A SKIPPER, 326
^ FIG. 2. — JAPANESE PORTER WITH COLLECTING BOXES, 326
FIG
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
TEXT ILLUSTEATIONS.
PART I.
COLLECTING AND PRESERVING.
PAGE
1. THE BEST KNIVES FOH A COLLECTOR OR TAXIDERMIST, 15
2. SQUIRREL PARTLY SKINNED, 27
3. SKINNING A SQUIRREL'S HEAD,
4. A MODEL MAMMAL SKIN, . . . . . . . .34
5. ANOTHER FORM OF MAMMAL SKIN,
G. OPENING CUTS ON A LARGE MAMMAL, 40
7. OPENING CUTS AT BACK OF PRONG-HORN ANTELOPE'S HEAD, . 41
8. A WELL-MADE DRY DEER SKIN, 4:>
9. FOOT OF AN ORANG-UTAN, 44
10. NAMES OP THE EXTERNAL PARTS OF A BIRD, .... 47
11. FIRST STEPS IN SKINNING A BIRD, .50
12. BIRD SKIN, WRONG SIDE OUT, 51
13. THE BIRD SKIN IN POSITION, 53
14 THE SKIN HAL? WRAPPED, .54
15. SPREADING THE TAIL, 55
16. THE SKIN FULLY WRAPPED, .55
17. A PERFECT BIRD SKIN, 56
iy How TO S:I\PR A HERON SKIN, .... .60
10. How TO OPEN A TURTLE, ... .00
20. AGASSIZ TANK. FOR ALCOHOLICS,
21. BIRD NEST, in situ, ......
22. WIRE STANDARD FOR NESTS, .... .93
23. NEST ON WIRE STANDARD, WITH LABELS, 94
PART II.
TAXIDERMY.
24. SKIN SCRAPERS, ABOUT ONE-FOURTH ACTUAL SIZE, . . 1C3
2H. LEG MAKING AND WIRING, 117
26 WIRING TOGETHER, . .119
26 ;. THE LEGS WIRED TOGETHER, 121
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xvii
FIG. FAGS
27. THE FINISHED SPECIMEN, 124
28. AUTHOR'S METHOD OF MOUNTING BATS ON GLASS, . . 128
29. ARTIFICIAL, SKELETON FOR HAND OF AN ORANG-UTAN, . . 131
30. FILLERS OF VARIOUS KINDS, 133
31. AN IRON SQUARE, 130
32. LEG IRONS OF AN AMERICAN BISON, 144
33. SKINNING A DEER'S EAR, 101
34. THE EAR HALF-SKINNED, . . 101
35. SKINNING DOWN THE INSIDE, 1G2
30. THE CARTIL.VGE OUT, 102
37. INTERNAL MECHANISM OF A DEER'S HEAD, . . . 104
38: COMPLETE MANIKIN FOR A DEER'S HEAD, . . . 1G5
39. MODELING TOOLS OF WOOD, .173
40. MODELING TOOLS OF WOOD, . 1?:!
41. MODELING TOOLS OF WOOD, . . .173
42. STEEL MODELING TOOL, ... .... . • 174
43. STEEL MODELING TOOL, . ...... 174
44. STEEL MODELING TOOL, . . . .174
45. SIDE VIEW OF TIGER'S TONGUE, ... . .175
46. END VIEW OF TIGER'S TONGUE, . . ... 175
47. TOP VIEW OF TIGER'S TONGUE, ... . 175
48. WIRING A BIRD'S LEO, 184
49. CROSS-SECTION OF ARTIFICIAL BODY, is.~>
50. THE FINISHED BODY AND NECK, 185
51. How THE LEG WIRES ARE INSERTED AND CLINCHED, . . . is<;
52. THE WINDING OF THE BIRD, 1X9
53. CAST OF THE NECK AND WINDPIPE OF A HERON 1!I5
54. METHOD OF MOUNTING ALCOHOLIC REPTILES, .... 203
55. MEDALLION OF YELLOW PIKE, 213
50. CROSS SECTION, 213
57. WALL CASE OF BIRDS, 223
58. WOOD DUCK, . 232
PART HI.
MAKING CASTS.
59. BEGINNING TO MAKE A PIECE MOULD, 200
60. SECOND STEP IN MAKING A PIECE MOULD, ... .201
01. LAST STEP IN MAKING A PIECE MOULD, . 202
XViil LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
via.
PAGE
62.
THE FINISHED MOULD,
. 262
63.
THE BEGINNING OF A WASTE MOULD,
. 263
64.
SECOND STEP IN MAKING A WASTE MOULD, ....
. 264
65.
265
PART IV.
OSTEOLOGY.
66.
274
67.
ROUGH SKELETON OF -A BIRD,
. 277
68.
STEEL BONE-SCRAPERS, .
. 286
69.
SKELETON OF A BAT, AS EXHIBITED,
. 291
70.
SKELETON OF A BIHD, MOUNTED AND DRYING,
292
71.
WIRING A SKELETON WING,
293
72.
SKELETON OF A TURTLE,
. 294
73.
THE SACRUM AND SPINAL ROD, .
. 298
74.
ATTACHMENT OF SIBS TO A VERTEBRA,
. 298
75.
MIDDLE JOINT OF THE HIND LEG : SIDE VIEW,
. 300
76.
MIDDLE JOINT OF HIND LEG : REAR VIEW, ....
. 301
77.
BONES OF THE FOOT : SIDE VIEW,
. 301
78.
BONES OF THE FOOT: REAR VIEW,
. 301
79.
THE KNEE-JOINT,
. 302
80.
302
81.
FRONT VIEW OF ELBOW-JOINT,
. 302
PAET V.
THE COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF INSECTS.
82.
•
APPARATUS FOR INFLATING LARVAE,
. 314
83.
DRYING OVEN, ... . .
315
84.
DRYING OVEN FOR LARVA SKIN (After Riley),
. 315
85.
WIRE BENT INTO SHAPE FOR MOUNTING LARVA (After Riley),
. 316
86.
BREEDING CAGE (After Riley),
. 317
87.
BREEDING CAGE,
. 818
88.
NET-FRAME (After Riley),
. 320
89.
NET-HEAD, FOR REMOVABLE FRAME (After Riley),
. 321
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XIX
Fir;.
PAGE
90.
FOLDING NET (After Riley)
. 321
Q1
. 322
92.
PERFOR VTED P\PER Disc FOR JAR,
3°°
METHOD OF PINCHING A. BUTTERFLY
325
94.
MANNER OF FOLDING PAPER ENVELOPE,
. 328
95.
BUTTERFLY IN ENVELOPE,
. 328
96.
DOUBLE MOUNT ....
. 330
97.
FRAME FOR MOUNTING BEETLES, .
. 330
98.
SETTING-BOARD,
. 331
99.
SETTING-BOARD (After Riley), .
. 331
100.
SETTING-BLOCK, . . .
. 331
101.
SETTING-BLOCK, WITH BUTTERFLY,
. 331
102.
SETTING-NEEDLE, ....
. 332
103.
Box FOR RECEIVING SETTING-BOARDS, .
. 333
104.
SHINGLING SPECIMENS.
334
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
PART I.— COLLECTING AND PRESERVING.
Eternal vigilance is the price of a collection.
CHAPTER L
THE WORKER AND THE WORK TO BE DONE.
THE need of thoroughly skilled collectors is increasing every
hour ; and right here let me say to the young naturalist athirst
for travel and adventure, There is no other way in which you can
so easily find a way to gratify your heart's desire as by becom-
ing a skilful collector.
The most important vertebrate forms are being rapidly swept
off the face of the earth by firearms, traps, and other engines of
destruction. In five years' time— perhaps in three — there will
not be a wild buffalo left in this country outside of protected
limits. There are less than one hundred even now — and yet
how very few of our museums have good specimens of this most
interesting and conspicuous native species.
The rhytina, the Californian elephant seal, the great auk, and
the Labrador duck have already been exterminated. For many
years the West Indian seal was regarded as wholly extinct, but
a small colony has lately been discovered by Mr. Henry L.
\Vard on a remote islet in the Gulf of Mexico. The walrus, the
manatee, the moose, mountain goat, antelope, mountain sheep,
the sea otter, the beaver, elk, and mule deer are all going fast,
and by the time the museum-builders of the world awake to the
necessity of securing good specimens of all these it may be too
late to find them.
2 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
Even in South Africa, where big1 game once existed in count-
less thousands, nothing remains of the larger species save a few
insignificant springboks, and no game worth mentioning can be
found nearer than the Limpopo Valley, eight hundred miles
north of the Cape!
Noiu is the time to collect. A little later it will cost a great
deal more, and the collector will get a great deal less. Sports-
men, pot-hunters, and breech-loading firearms are increasing in
all parts of the world much faster than the game to be shot, and
it is my firm belief that the time will come when the majority
of the vertebrate species now inhabiting the earth in a wild
state will be either totally exterminated, or exist only under
protection.
But do not launch out as a collector until you know how to
collect. The observance of this principle would have saved the
useless slaughter of tens of thousands of living creatures, and
prevented the accumulation of tons upon tons of useless rub-
bish in the zoological museums of the world. It costs just as
much to collect and caro for scientific rubbish as it would to do
the same by an equal number of scientific treasures. Between
fool collectors on one hand, and inartistic taxidermists on the
other, the great majority of the world's zoological museums
have been filled with objects that are anything but attractive ;
and for this state of affairs the collectors are more to blame
than the taxidermists.
Bad work in collecting is, in nine cases out of ten, due to one
of two causes — ignorance or laziness. By some curious process
of reasoning, many really intelligent men conclude that they
can go into the field and collect successfully without having
learned a single thing about methods, or asked a word of advice
from a competent instructor. Many seem to think that the only
thing required is main strength, and that even that may be exert-
ed by proxy. Even now, men who have travelled and written
books go to South America and dry all their skins in the sun
—after having carefully removed all the leg bones — and their
small skeletons they boil !
Some of the worst mammal skins I ever saw were made by a
professor of natural history, who actually managed to do nearly
everything as it should not have been done. And yet, collect-
THE TTOKKEtt AND THE WORK TO BE DONE.
ing- all kinds of animal specimens, in all climates, is perfectly
nimple to any one who has enough enterprise to inform himself
of the most reliable methods, and put them in practice.
I will confess I feel very deeply on this point, for I have
toiled, needlessly, unnumbered hours, and days too, in overcom-
ing1, as far as possible, the inexcusable blunders of collectors.
I have seen thousands of dollars wasted in tliis way that could
have been saved by good work in the field. It is easier to
mount two good skins within five per cent, of perfection than to
mount one poor one not nearly so well. Let me advise the
directors of all scientific museums, institutions of learning, and
patrons of natural history generally, when appealed to by an
enthusiastic collector for funds with which to go abroad and
collect an untold amount of pricoless specimens, in every case
withhold your aid until the would-be collector demonstrates
conclusively that he has learned how to collect. If he has not
wit enough and grit enough to acquire ability, and then prove
property, he is not fit to send anywhere, save back to the bosom
of his family.
These are the qualities which are required to make a first-
class collector : He must have a fair general knowledge of
zoology, especially the vertebrates. He must be a good shot, a
successful hunter, and capable of great physical endurance.
Then he must be a neat and skilful operator with the knife, and
conscientious in the details of his work, down to the smallest
particulars,' for without this quality his specimens will always
be faulty and disappointing. In addition to all these require-
ments he must be a man of tireless energy, incapable of going
to bed so long as there are birds to be skinned, and who, when-
ever a doubt arises in his mind in regard to the necessity of
more work on a specimen will always give the specimen the benefit
of the doubt.
I strongly advise every one who becomes a collector to learn
to sketch from nature. No matter whether you have any artis-
tic ability or not, if you are determined about it, you can learn
to make pencil sketches of rare specimens in the field, and of
native houses, costumes, weapons, etc., and remarkable natural
objects of all kinds, which, even though crude and inartistic in
finish, may be of permanent value to the scientific world. The
4 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
camera and dry plate are of great value, but commend me to the
pencil and sketch-book that " sticketh closer than a brother,"
and that never fail you on account of weather, weight, or acci-
dents. Therefore I say, sketch ; sketch poorly if you cannot
sketch well, but above all, sketch.
The moment you make up your mind to go on a collecting
trip, even if be only into the next county, read everything you
can get hold of which will tell you aught about the natural his-
tory of the country you are to visit. Ask what has been written,
search library catalogues for titles of books, then get all you
can, and read all you get. Only the churl will refuse to lend
you a book you cannot afford to buy. Read all about the phys-
ical geography, geology, climate, inhabitants, fauna and flora,
for all these will have a direct bearing on your work. If you
are going to unexplored territory, about which nothing has been
written, then " read up " on the adjacent countries, for even that
will be very useful information.
GUIDES AND COMPANIONS. — No matter where you go, you will
be obliged to have one or more companions, who know the coun-
try, to act as guides and general assistants. It may be that you
can find a single person combining the necessary qualities of a
guide and .interpreter with those of a boatman, a teamster, or
porter. The expense of such assistants must be counted upon
from the very first. It may be stated as a general rule that in
the tropics the services of natives can be had cheaply,- while
those of Europeans are generally dear in comparison with what
they do.
CLOTHING AND FOOD. — These subjects I propose to leave entire-
ly alone. They make excellent " padding " for a work of this kind
when there is a lack of really useful information with which to
fill up ; but every man feeds and clothes himself according to
the dictates of his temperament, his purse, or his own sweet
will. Whether his way is the best or the worst, he will still
have food and clothes more or less suitable to his needs, and
time spent in advising him what to wear and to eat is time
wasted. These questions are generally controlled by the local-
ity and circumstances.
PRESERVATION OF HEALTH. — There are certain hygienic princi-
ples which apply all the world over, and since their observance
THE WORKER AND THE WORK TO BE DONE. 5
becomes in the tropics a question of life and death, I will record
them. Their observance has preserved my health intact in
unwholesome jungles in a way that I consider nothing- short
of wonderful.
Never sleep on the ground in the wet portions of the tropics
when possible to avoid it, but keep above the poisonous mias-
matic vapors that lie close to the earth.
Boil water before drinking it, if it is thought to be bad, and
avoid stagnant water at all times.
Drink no spirits whatever except when really sick or debili-
tated, nor wine, nor other alcoholic beverages. Avoid brandy,
whiskey, and rum as you would the plague.
Eat no unripe fruit, and with moderation of even ripe fruits,
excepting bananas, which are harmless and most excellent
food.
Avoid eating large quantities of meat, but give the prefer-
ence to rice, and farinaceous foods generally.
Wear light flannel shirts, and at all hazards keep the head
and nape of the neck well shielded from the sun. Pith helmets
are best.
After getting wet, do not sit down in the hot sun with your
wet clothes on, but if you must remain in the sun, keep mov-
ing.
By means of rubber clothing, or " ponchos," keep from get-
ting wet whenever you can.
On coming into camp with wet garments, do not sit down in
them to rest, but change immediately to dry clothing and foot-
gear. The strict observance of this rule will save many an at-
tack of fever.
MEDICINES. — Every traveller or collector who goes beyond the
ready reach of doctors (and for that matter also every family
living in the country) should have a small box filled with cer-
tain medicines and simple appliances as a resort in all cases of
emergency. Very often a deal of mischief can be pi-evented by
having the proper remedy at hand and ready for immediate ap-
plication. TVho has not seen great suffering endured for the
lack of a simple remedy costing only a few cents ? No matter
where I go in the field, or how much luggage I am impeded
with, I always carry with me a small, square, japanned tin box
6
TAXIDEKMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
(10 inches long, 7 inches wide, and 4 inches deep) which con-
tains the following- :
1 roll silk court-plaster (about 1 yard).
6 curved surgeon's needles and silk
thread.
4 ounces spirits of turpentine.
4 ounces tincture of arnica.
2 ounces syrup of ipecac.
1 ounce paregoric.
1 ounce ammonia.
2 ounces castor oil.
1 pint lime-water and linseed oil.
1 pint best brandy.
1 bottle Collis Browne's chlorodyne.
% ounce quinine.
1 package Epsom salts.
1 package senna leaves.
1 package carbonate of soda.
2-ounce bottle of Squibb's diarrhoea mirfc-
ure.
1 box Beecham's pills.
1 small measuring-glass.
1 piece of small rubber tube, a foot long.
12 doses of tartar emetic.
The above makes a formidable showing, but the whole stock
costs only about three dollars and fifty cents, and the box, with
lock and key, about one dollar more. I have lately added to
this outfit a most valuable and helpful little book, entitled " Till
the Doctor Comes," by George H. Hope (G. P. Putnam's Sons,
New York), which to any traveller or country dweller is worth
twice its weight in gold. Fortunately, however, it costs only
fifty cents, and no one need be without it.
While a traveller or hunter should never drink brandy or
whiskey as a beverage, it is a most excellent thing to have in
many cases of sickness or accident, when a powerful stimulant
is necessary. Above all things, however, which go farthest
toward preserving the life of the traveller against diseases and
death by accident, and which every naturalist especially should
take with him wherever he goes, are habits of strict temperance.
In the tropics nothing is so deadly as the drinking habit, for
it speedily paves the way to various kinds of disease which are
always charged to the account of " the accursed climate." If a
temperate man falls ill or meets with an accident, his system
responds so readily to remedies and moderate stimulants that
his chances for recovery are a hundred per cent, better than
those of the man whose constitution has been undermined by
strong drink.
There are plenty of men who will say that in the tropics a
little liquor is necessary, " a good thing," etc. ; but let me tell
you it is no such thing, and if necessary I could pile up a
THE WORKER AND THE WORK TO BE DOXK. 7
mountain of evidence to prove it. The records show most con-
clusively that it is the men who totally abstain from the use
of spirits as a beverage who last longest, have the least sick-
ness, and do the most and best work. As a general rule, an
energetic brandy-drinker in the jungle is not worth his salt,
and as a companion in a serious undertaking, is not even to be
regarded as a possible candidate.
CHAPTEE II.
OUTFITS, AND HINTS ON HUNTING.
IN making* up an outfit with which to work on specimens in
the field, away from civilization perhaps, you must first decide
definitely upon the line of work you intend to do, for upon
this the extent and character of your outfit must depend. The
requirements to be met are economy of space, weight, and labor,
with no necessary article lacking. The mere item of keeping-
one's tools in order, and always accessible, is much more im-
portant than it would at first seem to be. There must be no
confusion, and not a single article must get lost. Good tools,
and plenty of them, in good working order, go a great way toward
the production of faultless specimens, having the highest pos-
sible value.
I think I may say without boasting that on my third collect-
ing trip abroad (to the East Indies) my outfit came as near per-
fection in size and arrangement as can ever be reached withoTit
far greater expense than that entailed. I was obliged to pack
and unpack the whole of it at least fifty times, but its arrange-
ment was so systematic and compact that the complete packing
up never required more than fifteen minutes, and I could go
to it in the dark and find any article desired, even to a needle
and thread.
The whole arrangement was very simple. To start with, the
entire outfit of firearms, am munition, tools, hunting-gear, and
a good stock of preservatives was contained in an iron-bound
black walnut chest about the size of a carpenter's tool-chest.
To keep my loading implements and ammunition in order,
I had an ammunition-box of walnut, 14| inches long, 12| wide,
and 44 deep, outside measurements, divided inside into five
compartments, which held and kept in order all the append-
OUTFITS, AND HINTS ON HUNTING. 9
ages belonging- to my three guns, and enough ammunition to
last a month for ordinary shooting.
Another small box, made of ash, one-quarter of an inch thick,
and divided into four compartments, contained an assortment
of knives, labels, and small tools (see list below), and was in
every way mulium inparvo. Both these boxes had their places
in the chest, and my guns, each in its own box-case, were pro-
vided for in the same receptacle. I have had made for col-
lectors going out from the National Museum nearly a dozen
tool-boxes in exact duplication of the original mentioned above,
and I can confidently recommend both it and the ammunition-
box as serving their purposes most satisfactorily.
Since my outfit for the East Indies proved very satisfactory,
and with one or two additions is precisely what I should take
were I to go again on a similar expedition, I give below a full
list of its contents. The additions I should make would be a
Winchester 7-shot repeating rifle, calibre 45-75, with the neces-
sary ammunition, a double-barrelled breech-loading gun, No. 12,
and possibly a wooden tank 2 feet x 2 feet x 2 feet, with a
screw top, for tho preservation of mammal skins in a salt and
alum bath. This last addition is rendered necessary by the
fact that I have adopted a different method of preserving skins
from that I had followed up to that time. Instead of drying all
skins as I did then, I now preserve the majority of them in a
wet state, and keep them so, except such as are desired as skins
for study, and not for mounting. The apparatus necessary for
collecting insects will be described in the section devoted to
work of that class.
OUTFIT FOR GENERAL COLLECTING,
Vertebrates and Invertebrates, both Large and Small, Dry and in Spirits, and on a
Large Scale.
1 Agassiz tank (copper), in wooden box, for alcoholics.
1 chest of black walnut, iron-bound, to contain all the articles enumerated below:
1 Maynard rifle, two barrels, calibre 40, 40 pounds shot, assorted sizes.
and 4.VS5 10 pounds Maynard bullets.
1 double barrelled breech-loading smooth- 1,000 Berdan primers.
bore gun. No. 10, in case ($:)0). 12 pounds Orange ducking powder.
1 Maynard shot-gun, No. 16.
1 Smith & Wesson revolver, cal. 32.
1 cartridge-belt an-I cartridge-bag.
00 pounds arsenical soap.
15 pounds dry arsenic.
1 dozen large skinning-knives.
10
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
1 dozen small skinning-knives.
6 scalpels.
2 claw hatchets.
1 saw.
1 large skin ssraper.
1 geological hammer.
1 bull's-eye lantern.
1 A No. 1 field-glass.
1 compass.
2 brushes for arsenical soap.
1 blow-pipe and set of egg-drills.
1 hydrometer and test-glass.
1 thermometer.
2 pairs hunting-shoes.
3 rubber blankets.
I double woollen blanket.
1 Ashanti hammock.
3,000 labels, three sizes.
1 tool-box, size 7 x 13 x 3 inches, to
contain the following :
4 skinning-knives.
2 pairs scissors.
1 brain hook.
1 pair long forceps.
1 pair short forceps.
1 pair cutting -pliers.
1 pair flat pliers.
2 sets skeleton-scrapers.
1 small skin scraper.
1 flat file.
2 three-cornered files.
1 cold chisel.
2 awls.
1 4-inch saw (for turtles).
1 tape measure.
1 2-foot rule.
1 ivory thimble.
1 oil-stone.
1 spool thread.
2 dozen labels.
C papers glover's needles.
With this outfit I collected, in two years, more than $15,000
worth of salable skins, rough skeletons and skulls of mammals,
many of which were very large ; birds, reptiles, and fishes, espe-
cially the large and important species ; also fishes and fish skins
in alcohol and brine; crustaceans, shells, starfishes, corals, and
a few insects. In not a single case did I ever fail to collect a
desired specimen through lack of implements and preserva-
tives with which to care for it, and only three or four specimens
spoiled on my hands in course of preservation. One of these
was an orang skin, the last one I took, which spoiled because
I had to pack it up and travel with it without giving it even
one day's drying ; and the others were skins which spoiled while
I was on my back with jungle fever.
The outfit listed above is of such a nature that for a trip
across Africa, South America, or even a much shorter distance
on foot or horseback, away from rivers and wagon-roads, it
would be difficult to take the whole of it. But then, on some
expeditions, for example, such as are made through Darkest
Africa, the travellers are generally glad to get through with
their lives, to say nothing of more cumbersome luggage, and
very little collecting is done. In nine cases out of ten, how-
ever, it is advisable to take along a good outfit, even though
OUTFITS, AND HINTS ON HUNTING. 11
there be three or four boxes of it, for, except in such journeys
as those mentioned above, there will always be a way to get it
along-. It will cost a few dollars for freight, and some trouble
in management ; but if you are a good collector, and mean busi-
ness, you will not mind that in the least. Where there's a will
there's locomotion ; and to collect well, or even at all, one must
have something to collect with. It is an expensive and exceed-
ingly laborious business at best, so don't go expecting to have
your " baggage checked through to destination, free of charge."
But there are a great many of my readers who, while they
may never want to go off into a howling wilderness, might
greatly enjoy collecting on such trips as they do take. Then,
again, there are sportsmen and travellers who will willingly
carry into good game districts a book of instructions, and
enough tools to enable them successfully to remove and pre-
serve the skins of valuable trophies of the chase, and other
specimens which should be kept on account of their scientific
value or their beauty. To meet .the requirements of both the
amateur and the sportsman I recommend :
THE TRAVELLER'S HANDY OUTFIT,
For a Collector of Jfammals, Heads, Trophies, etc., and also Birds.
Firearms, as you please.
A tool -box of }^ inch ash, size 7x13x3 inches, containing the following :
2 large skinning-knives (see Fig. 1).
2 cartilage knives (see Fig. 1).
1 pair scissors.
1 small oil-stone.
1 spool thread.
1 package needles.
1 package labels,
1 2-foot rule.
1 tape measure.
1 brain hook.
1 pair 9-inch forceps.
1 pair short forceps.
And if eggs are to be collected, then must
be added :
1 blow-pipe.
1 set of egg-drills.
With the addition of 10 large skinning knives, this was the
identical outfit I took with me on two collecting trips to Mon-
tana, during which we skinned and skeletonized 24 buffaloes,
about 20 antelope, 10 deer, 9 coyotes, and a goodly number of
birds and small mammals.
The points in favor of this outfit are its cheapness, compact-
ness, portability, and great general utility. It can bo carried
in a knapsack behind a saddle on an overland journey, and to
12 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
an explorer it is useful in a hundred ways besides those for
which it is specially intended.
FIEEAKMS. — The gun question is a good deal like the wife
question — every man prefers to choose for himself, and advice
is chiefly superfluous. Nevertheless, to those who have as yet
no preferences, I will briefly state mine, and the reasons for
them.
If I could have but one weapon, I should choose the May-
iiard rifle, calibre 40, with extra long cartridge, and a No. 12
shot-barrel fitting to the same stock, and interchangeable in
less than fifteen seconds of time. The rifle is light and handy ;
it hits hard, and is as true as steel ever gets to be. It will hit
every time precisely where you hold it. Its construction is so
simple it seldom breaks or gets out of order, the brass shells
never wear out, and when loaded are about as impervious to
water as marine torpedoes. Should you go under water — rifle,
cartridges, and all — you have only to " bob up serenely," and go
on firing as if nothing had happened.
By the addition of a shot-barrel, at a very slight expense,
you have, in reality, two good breech-loading weapons that will
serve you well for general purposes.
For ordinary large gam 3 I also prefer the Maynard rifle, but
of a heavier calibre than the above. Calibre 45 is the best size,
taking the U. M. C. Co.'s Bullard cartridges loaded with 85
grains of powder and 295 grains of lead. These with the May-
nard make a beautiful combination. It carries point-blank up
to 170 yards, if not even 200 ; the ball has great accuracy and
penetration, with a very low trajectory, and very little recoil.
A heavier bullet means a hearty kick and loss of accuracy, and
one of 500 grains of lead means occasional blood at your end
of the gun, and a black and blue shoulder.
For such great beasts as the elephant, rhinoceros, and hip-
popotamus, the choice must lie between a double 8-bore rifle,
and the No. 8 smooth-bore. For my part, I would rather hunt
my elephants with such a gun as I used on them in India, a No.
8 smooth-bore, double-barrelled, which, though weighing less
than 10 pounds, never kicked seriously, even with enough pow-
der (6 drachms) to send a zinc bullet through an elephant's
skull and brain, and out on the other side. With such a weapon
OUTFITS, AND HINTS ON HUNTING. 13
there will be no need to run after an animal, nor run away from
it either, after you get one fair shot at it.*
For hunting large birds and small mammals a No. 10 shot-
gun is the best ; but if you are specially interested in birds and
care little for mammals, a No. 12 breech-loader with top-snap
action will be preferable. For my purposes, however, my No.
10 double Werner and No. 16 Maynard always worked beauti-
fully together, and I think these two sizes afford the best com-
bination a collector can iind. Being very strongly built, I often
loaded my No. 10 with a single ball, and bagged many a fine
Indian bison in that way.
I always used heavy brass shells with all my shot-guns, for the
following reason : I could not spare room to carry paper shells,
the rains I encountered would have spoiled too many of them,
and away from home they were too expensive a luxury for me
to afford. The brass shells are expensive to start with, but
they last forever, or until they are lost.
HINTS ON HUNTING. — The duty of a naturalist to his specimen
begins when he levels his gun at it in the field.
Do not shoot a specimen to pieces, or mutilate it beyond
recognition by its own mother.
Study the moral principles of your guns, find out exactly
what they will do with what you put into them, and then don't
shoot your specimens too much. What is a tiger worth with
the top of his head blown off, or a deer with a great hole torn
in his side by an explosive bullet ?
Three vital principles to be observed in hunting specimens
are the following : See everything ahead, and allow nothing
to see you. Shoot to kill, but shoot so as to get your specimen
with the least possible mutilation. A squirrel shot with a rifle
is usually unfit for a specimen, and a bird with its legs shot to
pieces, mandibles shot off, and half its tail feathers torn to
pieces is about the same as no bird at all, unless it happens
to be a rare one. In using a rifle, get as close to your game as
you can (unless it be a tiger or be£.r !), so as to be sure of get-
ting it. With the shot-gun, get as far away as you dare, so as
to get no more shot into your bird than is necessary to kill it.
* For further particulars, see Two Years in the Jimgle. New York : Charles Scrib-
ncr's Sons.
14
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
It is a disgrace for a collector to shoot a bird to pieces and be
obliged to throw it away.
I append a showing of what I use in collecting, according
to circumstances. It is hardly likely that any two collectors
in the world agree on these points, therefore I do not expect
that these tables will suit the old hands. I put them forth
as mere suggestions to beginners.
RECOMMENDATIONS IN REGARD TO HUNTING WITH THE RIFLE.
Animals to kill.
Weapon to use.
Charge of
powder.
Weight of
bullet.
Best
distance.
i
Elephant
Smooth-bore,
6 drs.
Spherical
30 yds
Tiger, bear, elk, deer, sheep, seals,
large crocodiles
No. 8.
Maynard, 45.
85 grs.
pure zinc.
295 grs.
75 "
Apes, monkeys, small ruminants,
and small carnivora
Maynard, 40.
60 "
200 "
50 "
RECOMMENDATIONS IN REGARD TO HUNTING WITH THE SHOT-GUN.
Animals to kill.
Weapon to use.
Charge of
powder.
Charge of shot.
Deer ..
No. 10.
6 drs.
20, No. 8 buckshot.
Fox . .
" 10.
5 "
IK oz., No. 00.
Woodchuck
" 10.
3 "
IK " " 2.
Squirrel
" 12
3 "
\y, " " 6.
Chipmunk
" 16.
2 "
1 " " 10.
Ea^le crane, vulture
10 or 12.
Eagle Duck
Powder.
5 drs.
IK Double 00.
Turkey buzzard
10 or 12.
4 "
IK No. 4.
Crow
13.
3 "
IK " 6.
Quail
12.
3 "
IK " S.
Robin
12.
2V drs.
1 " 10.
Warbler
16.
2V "
1 " 12
Humming-bird.
16, or
2 "
1 oz. dust shot
Auxiliary, 22.*
Of course it would be easy to recommend a large assortment
of different weapons for different purposes, but when it comes
to providing an outfit of firearms, I must say I never cared to
take care of more than three or four weapons, and I doubt if
* For No. 22 use wood powder and a gun-cane. It makes no noise, does not frighten
the little birds and mammals, and, i_ you are wicked enough, you can use it on Sunday.
The Winchester is useful for rapid fir-
ing at short range, but the Maynard is the
weapon to depend upon for perfect accu-
racy at all ranges.
KNIVES. — For general use the best knife
for the collector or taxidermist is a steel-
handled cartilage-knife, as shown in Fig.
1, B. It costs seventy -five cents. There
are two kinds of cartilage-knives, but the
one shown has the best-shaped blade.
For heavier work the best knife I have
ever used or seen is the so-called " killing-
knife," No. 01512, as shown in Fig. 1, A,
made by John Russell, Green Eiver
Works, Turner's Falls, Mass., the retail
price of which is only seventy-five cents.
Had I designed it myself, especially for
collectors' use, I could not have done bet-
ter. The shape of the blade, the thick-
ness of it, and the shape of the handle are
OUTFITS, AND HINTS ON HUNTING.
the average amateur will feel disposed to
maintain a small arsenal. In preparing
the above tables I have limited the weap-
ons to those I have actually used. For
my use, the following constitutes a model
collector's outfit of firearms for all pur-
poses in all countries. It is cheap, but
first class, not cumbersome, easily cared
for in all climates, and equal to every
occasion that can arise :
1 No. 8 double breech-loading smooth-bore, and
1 Auxiliary barrel, No. 22, for very small birds (price,
1 Calibre 45-85 Maynard rifle, 1 calibre 40-60 rifle-
barrel, and 1 No. 16 shot-barrel, all to fit inter-
changeably on the same, stock, A smaller rifle-
barrel might also be added, but it is not really nec-
essary.
1 Calibre 45-75 7-shot Winchester.
1 No. 12 breech-loading shot-gun.
15
l«;=5.v. sv.s
Pro. 1.— The Beet Knives for
a Collector or Taxidermist
(about two-thirds actual size).
A, Russell's •• killing-knife;"
B, Cartilage-knife.
16 TAXIDEllMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
all perfect. If you cannot procure one of these knives, then buy
a good butcher-knife, and grind the blade down to this shape.
A knife with a straight edge is not fit to use, for many reasons.
Always keep a good coarse (water) whetstone for large knives,
and a Wichita oil-stone and oil for your finer knives, and th.3
final touches to your large ones.
SEASONS FOB COLLECTING. — Mammals. — In the temperate zone
never take fur-bearing or game animals before September 1st,
or later than February 1st, if possible to avoid it. On most
of these mammals the pelage is the finest during November
and December. It is then at its maximum length, very clean
and well dressed, and also at its brightest color. The rumi-
nants begin to shed in May (the American bison as early as
March), and by July the new hair upon them is only about half
an inch long, but very fine and sleek. At that time it does not
have its natural color. In our country, September, October,
and November are the months par excellence for the taking of
mammals, especially the large species, for after December 1st
the storms and snows of winter render their haunts untenable
for the hunter, unless he builds a cabin in the woods and makes
a winter of it. The haunts of the mountain sheep and goat
must be abandoned by December 1st, at the latest, on account
of the snow. The best time to take families of young mammals
is from May to August. If taken earlier they are too young,
and later they have passed their most interesting age. The
smaller the species are, the quicker the young mature, and in
collecting all such, the naturalist must be 011 the keen lookout
to take them at the precise time they reach the most interest-
ing size and age.
Birds. — In the temperate zone the best months for bird
collecting are March, April, May, June, September, October,
and November ; but since the study of migration depends upon
collections and observations made all the year round, there is
really no time to begin collecting, and no time to cease. At the
same time the amateur will soon discover that, aside from the
birds that are found only in their particular season, the greatest
number of species to be obtained in the Northern United States
come in the months mentioned ; and, of course, in the cold half
of the year they are most plentiful in the South, whither they
OUTFITS, AND HINTS OX HUNTING. 17
go to escape the cold weather. In the northern regions bird-
collecting naturally begins with the spring migration from the
South, and is most active from that time up to the end of June.
During July and August the old birds are moulting, and the
young ones have immature plumage and stub tails.
A rule which can be safely applied- to all tropical climates is
that the dry season is best for either collecting, sport, or travel.
Never collect in the rainy season if you can help it. Animal
life is doubly hard to find, specimens are desperately difficult to
preserve, and field work is very trying on the patience and the
constitution.
In the Arctic regions, hunting and collecting must be done in
midsummer, or not at all. While it is true that in the torrid and
temperate zones there is a certain amount of work to be done all
the year round, there is always a particular season which may be
regarded as the harvest-time.
COLLECTING BY AMATEURS. — There is one kind of collecting
which should be discouraged in every possible way, and that is
the postage-stamp style of collecting by boys who have no real
love for natural history. Boys in their teens often make col-
lections of bird-skins, eggs, and nests in precisely the same
spirit that prompts them to gather coins, postage stamps, and
autographs — " to see who can get the most kinds." This vicious
propensity is apt to involve a very good boy in a useless and
inexcusable wrarfare against the feathered tribes. Many a time
I have been saddened by the sight of drawer upon drawer, full
to overflowing, of poorly made skins of our most beautiful song-
birds,— hundreds of them in a single collection, perhaps not worth
ten cents apiece in any market, — each skin merely recording the
important fact that it was shot on a certain day in a certain
place. There is a way to prove whether a juvenile collector has
really a love for the study of birds. Let the one who furnishes
the sinews of war — parent, guardian, or elder brother — demand
that he shall mount every good specimen he kills, and be able to
tell all about its habits, food, economic value, etc. This will in
any event result in great good. If the collector is not really
absorbed in the study of bird-life, the labor such a course
involves will soon deter him from indiscriminate slaughter ;
and even if he is destined to become a distinguished member of
2
18 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
the A. O. U., it will be all the better for him to be taught to
place a high value on every bird, living or dead.
SHOOTING BIEDS AS A PASTIME.— I cannot, without being pro-
fane, find language strong enough to adequately express my ab-
horrence of the damnable practice some parents have of provid-
ing thoughtless boys with shot-guns and ammunition for the
slaughter of birds and small mammals, just for the fun (!) of the
thing, or to become proficient in the use of the gun. For the
killing of birds for food, or to mount for the cabinet, or to study
intelligently, there is some excuse ; but for the slaughter of
birds as a boyish pastime there is no excuse whatever, and
either boys or parents who have such a disregard for life as to
make it possible should be fined as heavily as can be done under
the law. Firearms and their users are multiplying at such a
frightful rate that it seems highly probable the time will come
when there will be no more wild birds or quadrupeds left upon
the face of the earth.
It is a good thing for a boy to be taught to shoot, and skill in
the use of a rifle may fairly be regarded as an accomplishment ;
but the taking of life is .not in the least necessary to its acquire-
ment. If a boy wants to shoot for the sake of becoming an ex-
pert with the gun, give him a rifle and a target, or a shot-gun
and clay pigeons, that he may start in the right direction. Do
this, and the chances are ten to one that he gets ten times the
sport and twenty times the benefit out of rivalry at the target
that he would out of roaming over the country and killing every
bird he can discover. Even in the immediate vicinity of Wash-
ington a song-bird can hardly raise a note without attracting a
boy with a gun.
POISONING AND TRAPPING MAMMALS. — Inasmuch as there are
in print a number of good books that treat this subject exclu-
sively, I may be spared the labor of taking it up here. The
reader must be assured, however, that traps and strychnine are
very valuable allies in collecting, and he who ignores them will
lose much. Above all things, carry with you plenty of strych-
nine, use it industriously, and it will bring you many a fine car-
nivore you would not get otherwise. Poison a skinned carcass
by cutting gashes an inch deep in the rump and other fleshy
portions, and putting strychnine in them. Also cut up chunks
OUTFITS, AND HINTS ON HUNTING. 19
of meat in little cubes, put poison in the centre of each, and
scatter them around for the benefit of the wily wolf and fox,
the fat and festive badger, the wary golden eagle and raven, and
other meat-eaters in general. On our hunt for buffaloes in
Montana, Mr. W. Harvey Brown was our Borgia, and his indus-
try and strychnine laid low some of the finest small specimens
we obtained, including specimens of all the species mentioned
above. After putting out poison, search the vicinity thoroughly
for two or three days, and the chances are your efforts will not
be in vain.
Dr. C. Hart Merriam and his collectors have reduced the trap-
ping of the very small mammalia to an exact science, the like of
which I venture to say has never been seen before. They use
three kinds of traps — the Lamb steel-trap, No. 0 ; the Cyclone,
and the Climax. These are all small, all may be used with bait,
or quickly modified to serve as runway traps, for arvicolas and
the like. Boiled oatmeal mixed with corn meal is the stand-
ard bait used for small rodents. For shrews, small camivora,
and omnivorous rodents, meat baits are used, such as birds'
heads, intestines, pieces of skin, and meat — in fact anything
fleshy.
CHAPTEE HE.
HOW TO SELECT AND STUDY FKESH SPECIMENS.
SELECTION OF SPECIMENS. — This is the golden rule in collect-
ing1 : Preserve the first specimen you collect of every species you en-
counter, lest you never get another. When you have obtained
too many of a kind, it is an easy matter to throw some away.
At all hazards, try to obtain one really fine adult male and
female of each species, to serve as standards of comparison in
your subsequent studies. Remember that immature, undersized
specimens are not typical representatives of a species, nor do
they add glory to a collection. At the same time, quite young
specimens, say one-fifth to one-tenth adult size, are always very
interesting, and should be collected and preserved whenever
possible. Collect your mammals and birds during- the season
when their pelage and plumage are at their finest. Especially
should every specimen that you propose to mount be strictly
first-class. Life is short and species many, and when you do go
through with the task of mounting a specimen, it should be so
fine in every way that you will never need to replace it for the
reason that it is too poor to keep. Of rare species, the rule is
to preserve every specimen taken, and, I may add, make as
many different kinds of preparations of a rare species as you
know how to prepare. For example, of the guacharo bird, or
cave-bird of Trinidad (Steatornis caripensis), my friend Jackson
and I prepared skins, skeletons, and alcoholic specimens, and
took a full assortment of nests and eggs.
MEASUREMENTS. — It is of great importance to acquire a fixed
habit of carefully measuring every specimen you prepare, unless
you are already in possession of an abundance of measured
specimens of the same kind. After getting into the habit of
measuring, it takes only a very few minutes to do the work, and
HOW TO SELECT AND STUDY FRESH SPECIMENS. 21
the value of the information thus obtained is sure to be equal
to ten times its cost.
Hecord the measurements on the label bearing* the name of
the object, and by all means adopt for each class of objects a
certain system of measurements, which should always be fol-
lowed. Under their respective headings, in the following- chap-
ters on collecting, I will give directions for measuring small
mammals, large mammals, and birds, according to the system I
think most useful.
CASTS. — The great value of casts as working models and
records cannot be overestimated nor ignored without loss of
accuracy. They are especially valuable in preserving- records
of the forms of mammals ; and the methods of making them—
all very simple and easy — will be found fully described and
illustrated in the chapters devoted to " Making Casts " (Part
III).
PHOTOGRAPHS. — To the taxidermist and collector, photographs
of dead animals are of very little value unless it be a large
picture of the head of a large specimen, such as a moose.
Photographs of live animals taken "broadside on," as the
sailors say, are extremely valuable aids in mounting ; but these
you get only in the zoological gardens. I never took a
camera into the field with me, and have always been glad of it,
for it would not have repaid the trouble it would have involved.
Xo man who has his hands full of shooting, preserving, and
packing specimens can afford to waste time on a camera with
which to take dead animals, because it is apt to fail to em-
phasize the very points you most wish to have recorded. I
have had enough dead animals photographed to feel sure on
this point.
On the other hand, the taxidermist who permits himself to be
wholly unable to make simple sketches, with a fair degree of
accuracy, from animals in the flesh, is seriously handicapped.
It is only the heaven-born genius — as yet unborn, I believe — who
can study animals and remember everything he sees. Written
descriptions help out a great deal, especially when particular
emphasis is called for, and in the absence of sketches, photo-
graphs are the next best thing. It is an excellent thing to be able
to photograph animals, both living and dead ; but the trouble is,
22 TAXIDERMY AKD ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
one cannot always get the game and the camera together. A
note-book and a pencil one can always carry, and even when
you have the camera, the former often proves the better ally of
the two.
OUTLINES. — For years it has been my constant practice to make
outlines of dead animals, on large sheets of paper, before skin-
ning them. My plan is to lay the specimen on its side on a
sheet of heavy manila paper, place the legs and feet in an easy
walking attitude, pin or nail them fast in place, then mark en-
tirely around the animal with a long lead pencil. To get an
exact diagram of a rather large mammal, I invented a wooden
square, cariying a pencil point at its outer angle, with which it
was easy to get the exact outline of a large animal, or large
skull. In mounting a specimen, such an outline is of great
value as a check on errors in proportion that might easily be
made in putting it together.
FIELD NOTES.— There are hundreds of specimens on which you
will not need to take notes, unless you have the time to study
their habits, find out what they eat, how they live, etc. But of
rare and interesting objects you will want to record all the
information you can gather regarding their life history. To
determine what they feed upon, examine the contents of their
stomachs. If there is no time to do that in the field, then pre-
serve the stomachs in alcohol, carefully labelled, and examine
the contents at your leisure. Learn how to observe, and then
put down in black and white, between substantial leather covers,
all that you do observe, and all that is told to j^ou by the
natives about species with which they are familiar. Do not
forget to ascertain and record the native names of your speci-
mens, for after you get home you will be certain to wish to
know them. One thing is certain; when you come to write
about your collection, you will wish you had taken more notes
in the field.
While a specimen is fresh, take careful notes as to the color
of all the soft parts that will lose their color when the skin
is dry. Learn to describe colors accurately, and, if possible
(though this seems like asking a great deal !), try to describe
colors so that afterward, when your notes get cold, you your-
self will know what they mean !
PLATE n.— Two PAGES FROM AN OLD FIELD NOTE-BOOK.— A TAXIDERMIST'S NOTE?.
<£
( i/2^<£fe^ Je^^r^.) £
HOW TO SELECT AND STUDY FRESH SPECIMENS. 23
In describing the colors of soft parts, I would advise you to
purchase the following1 Windsor & Newton tube colors (oil)
and use them as standards for reference : Ivory black, Vandyke
brown, burnt limber, burnt sienna, raw sienna, Naples yellow,
Indian yellow, chrome yellow, Indian red, vermilion, purple
lake, cobalt blue, and indigo.
LABELLING. — For scientific- purposes, a specimen without a
label is not quite so good as no specimen. It takes up room,
and is useless. The most important record to make on a label
is the name of the locality in which it was taken. Next in im-
portance is the date of its capture. You may leave off every-
thing else if you really must, for as to its name the specimen
can speak for itself. But it is by all means desirable that the
label should give the name, locality, date, sex, and some meas-
urements. I need not mention " name of the collector," for the
collector can always be trusted to look out for that without
advice from anybody, even under the most discouraging cir-
cumstances.
CHAPTEE IV.
TREATMENT OF THE SKINS OF SMALL MAMMALS.
MANY hundred beautiful and curious quadrupeds are shot every
year and allowed to perish utterly for lack of the little knowl-
edge and skill which would enable the hunter to remove and
preserve their skins. The operation is simple and easy, the re-
quirement in tools and materials quite insignificant, and the
operator has only to exercise a little patient industry to achieve
good results. There are few circumstances under which a de-
termined individual finds himself thwarted in his desire to re-
move and preserve the skin of a dead animal. In nineteen cases
out of twenty the result hinges on his own disposition. If he
is lazy, a thousand things can hinder his purpose ; if he is de-
termined, nothing can. A sharp pocket-knife, a little powdered
alum and arsenic in equal parts, or failing that, common salt
alone, will do the business in lieu of a better outfit, for any small
mammal that ever lived.
I begin with small mammals, because it is squirrels, rabbits,
cats, woodchucks, weasels, opossums, raccoons, and foxes that
the beginner will fall in with long before he is called upon to
wrestle with such subjects as deer, bear, elk, or buffalo. These
general directions apply to the skinning of all terrestrial quadru-
peds up to the size of a setter dog, and the preservation of their
skins in a mountable condition.
MEASUREMENTS. — The following are the most valuable meas-
urements to take of a small mammal.
1. Length, from end of nose to root of tail. This is to be taken
with the head stretched out straight as far as it will go. Meas-
ure from the tip end of the nose to the point where the tail joins
the body. In my judgment it is always best in determining
this latter point to take the angle made by the tail (underneath)
TREATMENT OF THE SKINS OF SMALL MAMMALS. 25
and the rump when the tail hangs or is bent down at an angle
of forty-five degrees to the spinal column. This point is always
fixed and constant, and can be quickly and accurately determined
by bending the tail down and sticking a pin or awl at the angle.
To measure an animal like a monkey on the top of the tail is to
attempt the location of a point which can rarely be determined
twice alike. For this reason I have alwaj^s taken this measure-
ment in both large and small mammals underneath the tail.
2. Length of tail, from root to end of vertebrae.
3. Length of It ind foot. Bend the heel at a right angle, and
measure from the outer extremity of the angle to the tip end
of the longest toe, including the nail.
4. Height at shoulders, if the animal bo not too small. To take
this, lay the animal on its right side, then, as nearly as you can,
place the right leg and foot in the position they would assume
if the animal were standing erect (the sole of the foot must be
parallel to the axis of the body), and measure in a straight line
from the bottom of the heel to the top of the shoulders. Re-
cord, also,
5. The color of the eyes, and the other soft parts.
6. Weight, in certain cases.
Do not forget what has been said in Chapter LTI. about
outlines and sketches. On one corner of the outline-sheet w<>
record the name of the specimen, locality, date, sex, measure-
ments, color of eyes, lips, feet, etc. It takes but a few moments'
time, and the result is a complete and accurate record of what
the animal was in the flesh. These sheets are numbered and
filed away, the skin is numbered and put in the bath, and even
though it be not until five years later that we are ready to
mount it, we can tell as accurately what the animal was like as
if it had been received only the previous day. If the specimen
is a baboon, for example, with several colors on its face, it was
for years my practice to make a rough sketch of the face and
put upon it the various colors that belong there, in oil-colors,
usually, though sometimes with water-colors. It was also my
custom to spend half an hour or so in taking a mould, and
making a quick cast in plaster Paris of the face of every
monkey or baboon which came to me, unless I already had one
which would answer as a model to copy in finishing the face.
26 TAXIDEKMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
SKINNING SMALL QUADEUPEDS. — Lay the animal flat upon its
back, head to your right. Hold your knife with the edge up,
and push the point through the skin of the throat, precisely in
the middle of the neck. Now push the point of the knife for-
ward under the skin, between it and the flesh, and divide the
skin in a straight, clean cut along the middle of the neck,
breast, and body, quite to the base of the tail. If the animal
has a large, fleshy tail, like a dog or raccoon, it must be slit
open along the under side (without cutting the hair) for
its entire length, except an inch or two at the base. If the tail
is small, slender, or bony, like that of a squirrel or a rat, it can
usually be slipped out of the skin by pulling the bony part
between two sticks held close together against the skin of the
tail.
The sole of each foot must be slit open, lengthwise, from the
base of the middle toe straight back to the heel, and in case the
foot is large and fleshy, like that of a dog, the cut must be con-
tinued on up the leg, perhaps one-third of the way to the knee,
to enable the skin of the leg to be turned wrong side out over
the foot.
Having made all the opening cuts, begin at the abdomen,
catch one edge of the skin between thumb and finger, and with
the knife cut it neatly and cleanly from the body, leaving as lit-
tle flesh as possible adhering to the skin. In using the knife do
not go at it in a daintily finical way, as if you were picking bird-
shot out of the leg of a dear friend ; for, if you do, it will take
you forever to skin your first specimen, and there will be no
time left for another. Learn to work briskly but carefully, and
by and by you will be able to take off a skin with a degree of
neatness and rapidity that will astonish the natives. It is not a
dissecting touch that is called for in taking off a skin, but a
firm, sweeping, shaving stroke instead, applied to the inside of
the skin, and not to the carcass. This applies to all skinning
operations on all vertebrates except birds.
After starting at the abdomen, we come very soon to where
the foreleg joins the body at the shoulder, and the hind leg at
the hip. Disjoint each there, and cut through the muscles
until each leg is severed from the body. Skin each leg by
turning the skin wrong side out over the foot quite down to the
TREATMENT OF THE SKINS OF SMALL MAMMALS.
27
toes. That done, cut the flesh away from the bones of the leg
and foot, neatly and thoroughly.
Never leave the foot of an animal unsldnned, unless it happens
to be a very small one, like a chipmunk, or smaller, and the
proper way is to skin the flesh out, even then.
Kio. 2.— A Squirrel partly Skinnod, showing Process.
Be careful to leave all the bones of each leg attached to each
other by their ligaments at the joints (see left hind leg in Fig.
2), and to the skin itself at the toes. Never tlirow away the leg
bones, unless the skin you are preserving is to be kept as a pelt
or a rug.
Detach the skin from the back, shoulders, and neck, and
28 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
when you come to the ears, cut them off close down to the
head. Turn the skin wrong1 side out over the head, until you
come to the eyes. Now be careful or you will do mischief.
Work slowly with the knife, keeping1 close to the edge of the
bony orbit, until you see, through a thin membrane under your
knife edge, the dark portion of the eyeball — iris and pupil.
You may now cut fearlessly through this membrane and expose
the eye. If your work has been properly done, you have not
cut the eyelids anywhere. If you are ever in doubt when
operating on the eye, thrust the tip of one finger fairly into the
eye and against the ball, from without, and cut against it.
This is always an excellent plan in skinning large mammals.
Skin down to the end of the nose, cut through the cartilage
close to the bone, and cut on down to where the upper lip joins
the gum. Cut both lips away from the skull, close to the bone,
all the way around the mouth. The lips are thick and fleshy,
and must be split open from the inside and flattened out so
that the flesh in them can be pared off. Do not mutilate the
lips by cutting- them away at the edge of the hair, but
leave the inside skin, so that in mounting1 you can fold
it in (with a little clay replacing1 the flesh) and thus make
a mouth anatomically correct. Do not shave off the roots
of the whiskers, or they will fall out. Gash the flesh between
them (they are set in rows), but leave the follicles themselves
untouched. Pare away the membrane which adheres to the
inside of the eyelids, and turn the ear
wrong1 side out at the base, in order to
cut away the flesh around it. If the ears
have hair upon them, they must be
skinned up from the inside and turned
FIG. s.-skinning a squirrel's wrong side out quite to the tip, in order
to separate the outside skin, which holds
the hair, from the cartilage which supports the ear.
For a full description of ear skinning, see another chapter.
The great principle which is the foundation of all valuable
field work on mammal skins is this : A skin must be so taken off,
cleaned of flesli, and preserved that the preservative powder or fluid
can act directly upon the roots of the hair from the inner side of the
shin, and over every portion of its surface. Neither alum, nor salt,
TREATMENT OF THE SKINS OF SMALL MAMMALS. 29
nor alcohol (unless it be of great strength) can strike through a
thick layer of flesh and penetrate through the skin to the epi-
dermis quickly enough to save it from decomposition. The
epidermis of most animals is of such a close and oily nature
that preservatives cannot strike through it from without, and
therefore when a skin is removed it must be cleaned of flesh
and fat, so that the preservative liquid or dry powder can come
immediately in contact with the cutis.
The skin is now off. If the lips have been opened out, the
ears skinned to the tip (if they be haired), and the" feet well
skinned down, we are ready to go on. But first we must clean
the skull. Cut the flesh all off, or the most of it at least, for it
is not possible to get it all away at the base ; cut out the eyes
and tongue, and with your brain-hook, or a piece of wire ham-
mered flat at the end and bent up at a right angle, patiently
draw out the brain through the occipital opening at the base
of the skull. By this time, perhaps, the skin will be bloody in
places, or possibly it was dirty to start with. Now is the time
to wash it thoroughly in clear water. Remember that a skin
which has been dried with blood upon it is damaged forever.
It stains the hair, and very often forms a hard, gummy mass
which nothing will dissolve.
PRESERVATION OF THE SKIN. — The next step depends upon what
you propose to do with the skin, or it may depend upon the
conditions under which you are collecting. 1. If you are in
your laboratory preparing skins to mount, preserve them all
(except quite young specimens and certain others) in a soft, or
wet state, in a salt-and-alum bath. 2. If you are in the field
(especially the tropics), making a large collection of mammal
skins for mounting, by all means do the same if possible. 3.
If the skins are for purposes of study as skins, during which fre-
quent handling and examination is absolutely necessary, make
them up as dry skins. 4. If you lack facilities for preserving
them wet, then make dry skins of them. 5. If the necessities
of travel and transportation make it necessary to reduce the
weight to the lowest possible limit, and to divide it up for car-
riage overland, make up all skins dry, both little and big. 6.
If you have only one or two skins to preserve, it will be less
trouble to you to make them up dry at once.
30 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
Here are the two methods :
A. THE SALT- AND- ALUM BATH. — This is the finest solution ever
discovered for the preservation of the skins of quadrupeds that
are destined to be mounted. It is inexpensive, simple, and
easy to make ; its action is perfect ; its strength can be regu-
lated to suit any kind of a skin ; it never gets stale ; and if
properly handled will preserve a skin for a hundred years in
the same pliable and elastic condition as when it leaves the ani-
mal's back. In only two or three instances have I ever known
it to change the color of the hair in the least. Every taxider-
mist knows that it is far easier to mount a fresh specimen in
line style than an old, dry skin which has lost all its elasticity.
The work on a soft skin (i.e., one which has never been dried)
can be done more easily, more quickly, and vastly better. With
a dry skin you can make only wrhat it will let you ; but with
a wet skin you can make just as fine a mount as your skill is
capable of producing. And with the latter it makes no dif-
ference whether the skin came off the animal last week or ten
years ago, except in the case of very young animals. Of these
the bath softens the leg bones. For years it has been my cus-
tom to preserve r.ll skins that I expect to mount (except the
young of the smaller species) in this salt-and-alum bath, and it
is almost superfluous to add that I strongly advise all others to
do the same. In many ways it is a great economy to do so.
Directions for Making It. — For every gallon of water put in
three-quarters of a pound of alum (one pint) and a pound and
three-quarters of salt (about one quart), and heat the liquid to
the boiling-point, stirring occasionally, so that the salt and
alum will dissolve. Then pour it into a wooden, earthen, or
glass vessel, or a tank lined with lead (for zinc or galvanized
iron will not answer), and when it is cool, or even milk warm, it
is ready for use. Test it with your salometer (which you can
procure for fifty cents of Bahmann & Hoehn, 21 Park Place, New
York), and see that it stands at 15°. This is the normal strength.
If stronger than that, e.g., 16° or 17°, the skin will be hardened
too much. It can go as low as 13° with safety, but that is the
limit. At 12° skins are liable to lose their hair.
Directions for t/se.— If the hair is tight on the skin every-
where, simply immerse it in the bath, leg bones and all, giving
TREATMENT OF THE SKINS OF SMALL MAMMALS. 31
it plenty of room at first. Move it up and down, and leave it as
much spread out and free from folds as possible. Remember
that the fluid must act upon the inside of the skin, for the epi-
dermis is often almost impervious to it. If you allow the skin
to lie upon itself in thick folds, stuck together on the inside,
those spots are liable to lose their hair in a most unaccountable
and aggravating way. If the skin is small and thin, the bath
soon does its work ; but if it is a large skin, move it up and
down, and all about, every day for the first two or three days.
By the end' of that time its preservation will be complete.
Half -.Bailed Specimens. — Very often a subject will be brought
to you in the flesh, several days old, green on the abdomen, and
the hair starting to slip off between the hind legs. If the hair
pulls out readily On various parts of the body and limbs, it is a
gone case ; but if it starts only a little on the lower part of the
abdomen, and is firm everywhere else, put some bath, with a lit-
tle extra alum in it, on the fire to get warm, snatch that skin off
in a hurry, and without stopping for any fancy touches whisk
it into the warm bath. The bath should not be so hot that you
cannot bear your hand in it. It will act like magic. Then you
can gradually finish your work on the skin, so as to keep it safe
from harm. Very often quick work, and a warm bath with
plenty of alum in it, will save a skin in fine, mountable shape,
when nothing else will. The alum acts as a powerful astrin-
gent, drawing together the fibres of the epidermis around the
root of each individual hair, and likewise binding together the
cutis and epidermis.
Cleanliness. — You will observe that as fresh skins are put into
a bath it gradually loses its strength, and it is also liable to be-
come, in time, so dirty with blood and grease that it must be
thrown away. Keep skins that are greasy (bear, seal, etc.) care-
fully by themselves, and never put the skin of a deer, cat, or any
animal with a fine coat in a greasy or dirty bath. If a bath is
clean, but of too low strength, make some extra strong bath, say
20°, and add to it and bring it up to 15°. Keep all your bath
receptacles tightly closed, or the liquid will evaporate very
rapidly.
Text /'in/ flit- lidfji. — If you have no salometer, and are not over-
particular, you can test your bath by tasting it ; but unless the
32 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
bath is new and untouched, I prefer the little salometer. By
tasting the bath when first made in the proportions given above,
and remembering the degree of its astringency upon the tongue,
you can make that a standard for comparison — if it suits your
taste !
Skulls and Leg Bones. — The leg bones of all small and medium-
sized mammals, even up to the deer, can just as well go into the
bath, after they have been thoroughly cleaned of all flesh and ten-
dons. The skulls, however, had better not go into the solution.
Clean them carefully, anoint them all over with thin arsenical
soap, put a tag on each to show to what skin it belongs, and let
it dry. Don't lay it aside without poisoning, or it will be
swarming with dermestes before you know it.
As before stated, a skin must have room while it is curing,
but when that has been thoroughly accomplished, which with
the largest skins never takes more than four or five days, they
can be packed together like sardines so long as the bath is
strong enough.
B. MAKING DRY SKINS.— Poisoning and Preserving. — When the
skin has been removed and cleaned, the next step is to sew up
from the inside any holes that may have been made in the skin
by bullets or knives. Then make up a mixture of two-thirds
powdered alum and one-third arsenic, and rub as much of it
upon the inside of the skin as will stick there. The alum is to
preserve the skin, the arsenic to poison it against the attacks of
insects. Apply this mixture thoroughly, especially in the feet,
ears, head, and tail, for these are the points the dermestes at-
tack first.
Another Method, and one which I almost invariably follow
when I am compelled to make dry skins, is to anoint the skin
with strong arsenical soap,* — the finest poison for skins yet dis-
covered,— then rub on the skin, as soon as the soap has been fully
absorbed, a mixture of fine salt and powdered alum, in equal
proportions. Though the arsenical soap may be thought
" mussy " at first, it should not be used thin and watery, but as
a thin paste, like thick cream. The advantages of this method
are — (1), that the skin is more thoroughly poisoned, especially
externally, on the hairless portions ; (2), the skin dries without
* See recipe in Chapter XLV.
TREATMENT OF THE SKINS OF SMALL MAMMALS. 33
becoming1 so hard and brittle and inelastic ; and (3), it can be
softened and mounted much more easily and successfully than
skins prepared by the first method. For skins which are to be
mounted, the advantages of this method are very obvious.
TJie Simplest Method. — If you have neither arsenic nor arsenical
soap, and yet wish to save a skin so it can be sent to a taxider-
mist in good condition, prepare it with fine salt alone. Use the
salt liberally, and if the weather is warm, leave the skin turned
wrong side out and roll it up in a quantity of it. If you use it
sparingly, the skin will absorb it all in a day or two, literally
" cry for more," and failing to get it will sweat and spoil. It is
simply a question of enough salt.
Even when collecting in the field, I nearly always cure small
skins with salt only, so that they will stay quite soft and fresh
until they get to the laboratory, and then go into the bath with-
out ever having been dried.
Rats. — Skins preserved with salt only must be carefully
guarded from the attacks of mice, rats, cats, dogs, and other
vermin that go about seeking what they may devour.
MAKING UP A DHY SKIN. — The Legs. — Having applied the pre-
servatives, if you propose to make up your specimen as a dry
skin, wrap a little tow, oakum, cotton, or cotton cloth around
the bones of each leg, to partly replace the flesh, and keep the
skin away from the bone, so that both can dry quickly. If you
have no other material, paper will do. In the East Indies, where
transportation was difficult, I used to carry with me bundles of
coarse brown paper such as the grocers use, and used it for
wrapping the leg bones of monkeys, foxes, and the like. But
for the small rodents, one must have either tow, oakum, cotton,
or cloth, the preference Jbeing in the order named. On no ac-
count should the skin be left to dry down upon the bone. The
proper filling out of the legs is desirable in order that they may
have a neat, shapely, and natural appearance, so that the hair
will lie naturally, and can be studied to advantage. If this part
of the process is neglected, the skin of the leg shrivels up, dries
down upon the bone, and looks like a mummy. In the tropics
the moisture in a leg bone is sufficient to cause the decay of the
skin which surrounds it unless they av separated by some kind
of wrapping. To avoid this, some tropical collectors allow their
3
34
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
skins to dry ivrong side out, a most lazy and vicious habit, the
results of which are in most cases totally worthless.
Having- wrapped the leg bones enough
fairly to replace the flesh, turn back the skin
of the leg until it comes right side out again,
adjust the skin neatly, and make the member
as shapely and natural as you please.
The Skull. — There are two ways of dispos-
ing of the skull. The universal custom has
been to replace it in the head, with a little fill-
ing in the cheeks and orbits, the lips neatly
adjusted on the teeth, and the eyelids also in
their place, half open. This makes the best-
looking skin, and unless you wish to study
the skull, is the best method to follow. For
skins that are specially designed for study,
the plan lately adopted by the curator of
mammals of the National Museum is an excel-
lent one. It is to remove the skull entirely
from the head, and in case of all mammals
smaller than a coyote, put it in the centre of
the body, with the filling, in the line of the
seam along the belly, so that by cutting a few
stitches in the dry specimen it may be read-
ily taken out at any time. The advantages of
this arrangement are obvious.
The Tail. — The tail must be disposed of ac-
cording to its character. If it is long and
slender, take a small wire, wrap it with tow or
cotton cloth, so that the skin cannot touch the
iron at any point, insert it in the tail and sew
it up with a few long stitches. If you have
not the means wherewith to do this, whittle a
slender stick to a point, and insert it in the
tail from within two inches of the body out to
the tip. If the tail is large, and has been split
open for its entire length, it can be left flat.
Filling. — Begin at the head and fill out the head, neck, and
body to about the natural size of the animal when alive, but no
PIG. 4. — A Model Mam-
mal Skill.
TREATMENT OF THE SKINS OF SMALL MAMMALS.
larger. Setter leave it too small than f II it too full, and stretch the
skin out of proportion. With needle and thread sew up the
skin to give it a neat appearance, beginning1 at the throat.
Comb and brash the hair so that it will lie naturally, and show
its texture and colors to the —_^
best advantage. Take a stitch
also in the centre of the lips to
hold them together.
ShapiiHj - - The ends to be
sought in laying out a skin to
dry are, to have it take up a
limited amount of space in a
drawer, to have all breakable
points protected, and at the
same time to have all parts of
the specimen accessible for ex-
amination. The shape of a dry
skin, therefore, must depend
upon its character. The hand-
somest collection of small mam-
mal skins that I have ever seen
is that of Dr. 0. Hart Merriam,
Chief of the Bureau of Eco-
nomic Ornithology and Mam-
malogy, Department of Agri-
culture. Although it is purely
a private collection, it contains
at this date 5,750 skins. Dr.
Merriam's method of shaping
a skin is certainly, so far as
looks are concerned, the best
yet devised. Fig. 4, on the op-
posite page, shows it perfectly.
The tail is wired, and extends
straight out behind, lying be-
tween the hind legs, which also
extend directly backward. Tho
forelegs are drawn forward iust far enough apart to allow the
head to lie between them. The skin is well shaped, and lies flat
Fio. 5. — Another Form of Mammal Skin.
36 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
upon the belly, with all the members resting1 clown upon the
bottom of the drawer.
With specimens having long tails this arrangement is open
to one objection. In the rough-and-tumble experiences that
collections made in the field almost inevitably go through be-
fore they reach safe anchorage in the museum, a long tail stick-
ing straight out for its full length is very liable to suffer dam-
age in various ways, especially at the tip. For this reason I
always bend the tail down and lay it along on the belly, with a
stitch or two to hold it there, safe from harm (Fig. 5). And
with such animals as monkeys, sloths, cats, etc., having long
and slender forelegs, I always place those members close along-
side the body, instead of extending them their full length to-
ward the front.
STEEL COMBS. — For dressing the hair of an animal it pays to
have a furrier's fine steel comb, and a coarser comb of German
silver, such as can be obtained at seventy-five and fifty cents
each, respectively, of J. Euszits, No. 73 Mercer Street, New York.
The same furrier also furnishes a very large steel robe-comb
(like an infant garden rake), which is very useful on large mam-
mals having long, matted hair, such as buffaloes, camels,- llamas,
and the like.
CHAPTER V.
COLLECTING AND PRESERVING THE SKINS OF LARGE
MAMMALS.
THE fundamental principles to be observed in skinning- a
large mammal are, in general, precisely the same as those which
govern the same process in small mammals, and which have
been recorded in detail in the preceding chapter. Having done
my best to afford the student a clear and full understanding of
those principles, it is almost unnecessary to say anything about
large mammals. A keen-witted worker could skin any mammal
and preserve the skin by the light of the directions already
given, with such variations as common-sense would dictate.
But, in order to aid the student to the fullest extent, we will
endeavor to state the exceptions and variations of method which
are necessary in disposing of large subjects.
MEASUREMENTS. — Up to this hour there has been a total lack of
system and uniformity among naturalists and hunters in tak-
ing measurements of large quadrupeds. I have in several im-
portant cases found it utterly impossible to interpret the mean-
ing of measurements taken by other collectors — and it is very
likely they have experienced the same difficulty in understand-
ing mine. In the hope of securing uniformity hereafter in ob-
servations of this kind, I venture to propose the following sys-
tem, which will apply to all terrestrial mammals larger than th:-
fox, except the large quadrumana. If the method here proposed
is rigidly adhered to, it will produce a uniformity in results
that will certainly increase the value of specimens collected
hereafter. The measurements are listed in the order of their
importance, and are fully indicated in the accompanying illus-
tration (Plate LLI.). Straight lines indicate straight measure-
38 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
ments between two points, not following curves ; and curved
lines indicate circumference measurements.
Record all measurements in feet and inches, and fractions of an
inch. If you would have your records understood by the few
rather than by the many, then bow to the dictates of the French
and German naturalists, who, as a rule, care not a brass farthing
for American science or zoological nomenclature, and employ
the metric system. The chances are as twenty to one that no
one outside of the English language will ever care a continental
about your measurements, and for this reason United States
measurements ought to bo good enough for us. There is no
more reason why 120,000,000 English-speaking people should
adopt the metric system for a few Europeans who might care
for their measurements, than that we should write all our zoo-
logical books and papers in French or German. If you wish
to make your records available' to the pec.plc, who will care for
them, make them in the United States language.
1. Length of head and body to root of tail (Plate III., A-A).
-In taking this measurement, lay the animal upon its side,
stretch the head straight forward as far as it will go, and hold a
stick perpendicular against the tip of the nose. Erect another
perpendicular rod under the tail, close to where it joins the
body, at the angle formed by the lines A and II, then measure
between these two perpendiculars.
2. Height at the shoulders (B-B). — This is a difficult measure-
ment to take, because it is subject to the management of the
operator. Plant a perpendicular rod close against the shoulders
at the highest point. Then hold the foreleg perfectly straight,
at a right angle to the axis of the body, and bend 'up the foot
into the position it would assume if the animal were standing
upon it. In short, place the foreleg and foot exactly as they
would be were the animal alive and standing, with its weight rest-
ing upon it, and measure from the bottom of the heel in a straight
line to the perpendicular at the shoulders.
3. Girth behind foreleg— In taking this, always measure at
the point where the girth of a saddle touches the horse, and
draw the tape-line taut upon the skin. If the hair is thick and
long, part it.
4. Circumference of the neck.
EH
•J
6,
o
g
a
H
Q
H
W
O
W
«
K
(2
a
w
-
o
W
i
w
K
COLLECTING AND PRESERVING THE SKINS. 39
5. Depth of flank (E-E). — To a taxidermist, this is often a
very important guide in the construction of a manikin. There
is always a thin fold of skin at the point where the skin of the
hind leg- passes to the side of a large animal, as indicated by the
dotted line in the figure, at the lower end of the line E-E.
Erect a perpendicular at the upper end of the line E, and meas-
ure between the two points.
G. Circumference of forearm (F-F). — To be taken at the
point where the forearm has the greatest circumference.
7. From head of humerus to head of femur. — This is always
of extreme value in building a manikin. As the animal lies
upon its side, hold the foreleg the same as when you measured
the height at the shoulders. Then feel for the two high points
G-G, where the skin rests on the outer extremity of the arm
and thigh bones (not the pelvis), at shoulder and hip, and meas-
ure between the two points.
8. Length of tail (H-H). — Hold the tail down at an angle of
forty-five degrees with the axis of the bod}7, or the line A- A, and
measure from the angle A-H to the end <>///,<• i\->'trl>rce of the tail.
If you measure to the end of the hair, let this be a supplemen-
tary measurement.
These are the measurements which should always be taken on
a large animal. Of course, of certain subjects, there are many
other measurements that you will want, but your own needs will
tell you what they are.
\\KIGHT. — It is very desirable to ascertain the weight of an an-
imal whenever possible. A thousand times, at least, have I
been asked the weight of my big tiger (495 pounds), and that
number of times have I been glad that in spite of jungle fever,
I persevered with my 50-pound scales, and weighed the animal
piecemeal, after he had been skinned and cut up. With a par-
ticularly fine animal it is well worth the trouble it costs.
SKINNING A LAEGE MA.M.MAL. — Pdp the skin open by a clean,
straight cut from the throat along the neck, breast, middle of
the belly, and on to the root of the tail. We are now obliged to
slit the legs open along their entire length, so that the cuts will
be as much out of sight as possible when the animal is mounted.
In making these opening cuts, always insert the point of the
knife under the skin, edge uppermost, to avoid cutting the hair.
40
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
To rip open a leg-, seize the foot in your left hand, bring1 the leg
against your own knee to hold it tense and firm, then insert the
point of your knife into the middle of the foot at the back, and
cut straight up the back of the leg until you come to the "knee"
on the foreleg, and hock-joint on the other. At these points
gradually change the di-
rection of the cut and ran
it on up the inside so
that it will finally come
to the body-cut at a point
exactly between the legs,
and as much as possible
out of sight. The lines
in the accompanying- fig-
ure (G) show how the cuts
in the legs should be
made. In skinning1 the
head of an animal having
antlers or horns, it is
necessary to make an
opening at the back of
the neck shaped like a Y-
FIG. 6. — Opening Cutn oa a Large Mammal. -*«- i /i i
Make the cuts as shown
in Fig. 7, on opposite page ; cut completely around each horn
at its base, and skin the head by working downward over
the forehead and cheeks. The skull is then taken out through
this Y *
Thoroughness. — The principles to be observed in skinning1 the
body are precisely the same as those given for small mammals.
Remember that it is easier to take the skin off clean and free
from flesh as you cut it from the animal, and can stretch it tight
with your left hand in order to shave the flesh off clean, than it
will be to clean the skin after it is off. An excess of flesh left
on the skin means unnecessary weight, a waste of preservatives,
and longer time in curing the skin. A clean, thin skin is more
easily and quickly cured and carried than one badly taken ofT.
My habit is to clean a skin so thoroughly in taking it off that
no paring down is necessary before curing it — unless, indeed, it
* For detailed instructions in skinning large heads, sec Chapter XIX.
COLLECTING AND PRESERVING THE SKINS.
41
be the skin of an elephant or other pachyderm. "When I once
preserved the skin of a large, old elephant in an Indian jungle,
I kept ten native chucklers at work upon it for three days, thin-
ning it down to a portable degree.
The Legs. — If tho specimen is of medium size, c.y., not larger
FIG. 7.— Opening Cuts at Back of Prong-horn Antelope's Head.
than a deer, disjoint the legs at shoulder and hip, and leave all
the leg bones attached to the skin, just as with small mam-
mals; but, of course, cutting off the flesh and tendons carefully.
If the animal is larger than a deer, the skin would be too heavy
and cumbersome to handle if all the leg bones were left attached
to it. Therefore, with your elk, moose, buffalo, etc., cut off tho
42 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
foreleg- at the " knee " (so called), and the hind leg- at the hock-
joint, leaving the calcaneuni, or heel-bone, attached to the canon
bone, and thus remaining- with the skin. The bones from the
two upper joints of the legs are to be cleaned of flesh, tied in a
bundle, and sent with the skin — unless the collector happens to
be travelling^ by pack train in mountainous country, far afield.
In such a case we can forgive him for throwing away the large
bones of the legs if he will only bring in the skin, skull, and
lower leg bones all right. The point is, in mounting a skin we
must have leg bones — if not the real ones, then they must be
counterfeits carved out of wood, to give shape to the legs, par-
ticularly at the joints. And he who tries it once will find it is a
two or three days' job to carve a large set of leg bones, even
with patterns by which to work, to say nothing of having to
evolve models from one's inner consciousness. Therefore, I say,
save the leg bones.
Betvare of Blood. — By all means keep the hair from getting
bloody, but if you cannot possibly keep it clean, keep it as clean
as you can. Remember that blood must be washed out on the
spot, no matter how scarce water is, nor whether the mercury
stand at 110° above zero, or 10° below. If a wound bleeds pro-
fusely, throw plenty of dry dirt or sand on the hair that has
become bloody, to absorb the blood. The dirt can be knocked
out with a stick, and it will take the blood with it. If the white
hair of the prong-horn antelope once gets soaked with blood, it
is impossible to remove all traces of it. The soft, tubular hairs
get filled with blood wherever there is a break, and enough of
it will always remain to mark the catastrophe. In the Bad
Lands of Montana I once washed three long and bitterly cold
hours on a fine antelope skin that had lain twenty -four hours
with blood upon it, but had to give up beaten, at last, and throw
the skin away.
Shaping. — Since these directions will be used chiefly in pre-
paring the skins of deer, antelope, and kindred ruminants, the
accompanying illustration (Fig. 8) is given to show how such
skins should be made up when they are to be preserved dry,
either for study or for mounting. It is best to defer folding
up a skin until it is partially dry and has begun to stiffen a
little.
COLLECTING AND PRESERVING THE SKINS.
43
SPECIAL AND EXCEPTIONAL DIRECTIONS. — Apes and Monkeys.—
If you are in the jungle, the chances are that you will have no
plaster Paris with which to make casts, in which case you must
make the sketching-
pencil and tape-meas-
ure do double duty.
With such a wonder-
ful and characteris-
tic form as a gorilla,
chimpanzee, or orang-
utan, you cannot ^MMB^V-V^'^ n}\
study it too much ^L^^^
unless you study it
until the skin spoils.
Above all things,
study every feature
of the face, and also
its expression, so that
you can make a copy
of it two years after-
ward which shall be
both mathematically
and artistically cor-
rect. If you have
plaster Paris, fail not
to take a mould of the
face, and also of one
hand and foot, so that
later you can make
casts. The same ad-
vice applies to the
great baboons with
their IV;irful and won-
derful faces and is-
chial callosities, some of them gotten up with all the colors of
the rainbow, and far more brilliancy. Kemember that when the
skin dries all those colors totally disappear, and the skin turns to
the color of parchment. Therefore, ovit with your box of colors
at once, and make a color-sketch of the face. If you have skill
FIG. 8.— A Well-made Dry Deer Skin.
44
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
but no colors, or colors with no skill, then out with your " Ridg-
way's Nomenclature of Colors," make a large diagram or sketch
of the head, and mark the names of the respective colors upon
it. Whenever the skin of any animal has any noticeable color,
record the fact in as definite terms as possible.
All the great anthropoid apes should have the opening-cut
for the body made along the middle of the back, up to the back
of the head, instead of along the abdomen and breast, which are
generally but thinly haired, and on tlie throat are quite naked.
By doing this, the sewed-up seam comes at the back of the
mounted specimen, in the hair, and out of sight. With adult
specimens of the gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang the skeleton is
quite as valuable as the skin, therefore every bone must come
FIG. 9.— Foot of Oraug-Utan, showing Opening Cuts.
forth and be carefully preserved. Skinning the fingers is a
tedious task, and one which requires some skill, especially when
it comes to working the end off so that the nail is left in its
place in the skin, and without mutilation. But when the value
of a skin and skeleton runs up into hundreds of dollars, you can
well afford to spend a whole hour in skinning a hand, if you
cannot do it in loss time. The opening cuts for the hand and
foot of any ape or monkey are to be inado as shown by the dot-
ted lines in the accompanying sketch of the foot of an orang-
utan (Fig. 9). This is necessary even in skinning t mall quadru-
manes which are to retain their leg bones, because the skin of
each finger must be separated from- the bone so that the pre-
servative powder or liquid can get at the inside of it.
The Eyes and Nose. — Bo exceedingly careful in skinning the
face. The eyes are deeply sunken in their sockets, and if you
COLLECTING AND PRESERVING THE SKINS. 45
are not very careful your knife will make an ugly gash at the
corner of the eye before you know it. A finger held in between
the lids against the eyeball will be a safe guide. Of course, you
will cut the lips away at the gum, and split them open after-
ward from the inside to remove the flesh. And, of course, the
proboscis of the baboon and the long-nosed monkey of Borneo
must be skinned out quite to the tip while the specimen is fresh,
or it will dry up horribly.
The Ear. — The ear of a quadrumane, especially that of a chim-
panzee, because of its great size, is a very miserable part to pre-
serve, unless you have a salt-and-alum bath at hand. If the car-
tilage is entirely skinned out — itself a difficult thing to do — it
will afterward be almost a practical impossibility to give the
ear its proper shape. Therefore the cartilage must remain.
The skin can be loosened from the cartilage at the back of the
ear, however, which is a great gain. Do this, and insert a good
quantity of powdered alum. Then paint the whole ear over on
both sides with arsenical soap, and put on all the powdered
alum that will stick — unless the skin is to go in the bath. In
that case treat each ear to a little strong alum water for an hour
*»
or so.
CHAPTEK VI.
COLLECTING SKINS OF SMALL BIBDS.
THE lives of hundreds of thousands of wild birds have been
sacrificed to no purpose by persons claiming1 to be ornithologi-
cal collectors, and yet who had not the knowledge, skill, or in-
dustry to make up good bird skins. There are now in this
country numerous large collections of bird skins that are a sight
to behold. The ability to make up fine, clean, shapely, well-pre-
served skins, and make them rapidly also, is a prime requisite
in anyone who aspires to be sent off to interesting " foreign
parts " to shoot, collect, and see the world — at the expense of
someone else. An aspiring young friend of the writer, whose
soul yearned to travel and " collect," missed a fine opportunity
to make a very interesting voyage on the Albatross, for the sole
reason that with all his yearning he could not make good bird
skins, — and it served him right for his lack of enterprise.
Let me tell you that, while twenty years ago any sort of a
bird skin was acceptable to a museum, now such specimens must
be first class in order to be well received. Fine skins are the
rule now with curators and professional ornithologists, and poor
ones the exception. Although the work itself is simple enough,
it is no child's play to perform it successfully.
It is best for the beginner to learn first how to skin small
birds, and make up their skins, and when he has mastered these
details he is prepared to undertako the preparation of largo
specimens, and learn how to overcome the exceptional difficul-
ties they present. To this end the present chapter will be de-
voted to setting forth the leading principles involved, which
are most easily learned from small specimens.
We will first undertake the work of skinning a small bird — a
robin, thrush, or blackbird, whichever you happen to have. If
COLLECTING SKINS OF SMALL BIRDS.
47
in skinning, skin-making-, and mounting you master the robin,
for example, which is the highest type of a bird, you will be
well prepared for the great majority of the other members of
the feathered tribe.
Shoot your specimen with as fine shot as possible, and not
too much even of that, in order to avoid shooting its mandibles,
feet, legs, and feathers to pieces. As soon as it is dead, plug the
throat, nostrils, and
all iramnls il/at bleed,
with bits of cotton,
to keep the blood
and other liquids
from oozing out
upon the feathers,
and putting you to
more serious trou-
ble. Carry the spec-
imen home in any
careful way you
choose, so as to
avoid rumpling or
soiling the plum-
age. By all means
let your first prac-
tice be upon clean
1 )irds.
A bird should lie
an hour or two after
being shot, in order
that the blood may coagulate. Warm specimens bleed very
badly in skinning.
"We are now in our workroom, with the gun standing quietly
in its corner, and a robin lying on the table before us. Look at
it. Study its form and structiire, and remember what you see.
Notice how smoothly the feathers lie — how nicely they fall over
the angle of the wing at the shoulder — how completely the
thigh is buried in the feathers of the breast and side, and also
where the legs emerge from the body feathers. Notice how
* From Steele's Popular Zoology, by permission of the American Book Company.
FIG. 10.— Names of the External Parts of a Bird.* 1, Crown ;
2, forehead ; 3 nostrils (or cere) ; 4, upper mandible ; 5, lower
mandible; 6, throat; 7, neck; 8, spurious quills; 9, occiput;
10, ear ; 11, nape ; 12, breast ; 13, middle coverts ; 14, large cov-
erts ; 15, belly ; 1C, tibia ; 17 tarsus ; 18, inner toe ; 19, middle
toe ; 20, outer toe ; 21, thumb ; 22, under-tail coverts ; 23 tail ; 24,
primaries ; 25, secondaries ; 26, tertiaries.
48 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
short the neck is, how the eye does not bulge out of the head,
and note the fact that the breast and belly look full, round, and
comfortable, instead of presenting that ghastly, drawn-Tip, evis-
cerated appearance so often seen in the amateur's mounted
specimens. Note the color of the eye, the bill, the cere, tarsi,
claws, and all other parts that will require painting when the
specimen is mounted, if it ever should be. Now take the fol-
lowing
MEASUREMENTS. — It would be high treason for me to recom-
mend any other system of bird measurement than that directed
by Dr. Coues in his incomparable " Key to North American
Birds," and it is hereby set forth :
1. Length. — Distance between the tip of the bill and the end
of the longest feather of the tail.
2. Extent of wings. — This means the distance between the
tips of the outstretched wings as the bird lies flat upon its back.
3. Length of wing. — Distance from the angle formed at the
(carpus) bend of the wing to the end of the largest primary. In
birds with a convex wing, do not lay the tape-line over the curve,
but under the wing, in a straight line.
4. Length of the tail. — Distance from the roots of the tail feath-
ers to the end of the longest one. Feel for the " pope's nose ; "
in either a fresh or dried specimen there is more or less of a
palpable lump into which the tail feathers stick. Guess as near
as you can to the middle of this lump ; place the end of the
ruler opposite the point, and see where the tip of the longest
tail feather comes.
5. Length of bill. — Dr. Coues takes " the chord of the culmen,"
which is determined thus : " Place one foot of the dividers
on the culmen just where the feathers end ; no matter whether
the culmen runs up on the forehead, or the frontal feathers run
out on the culmen, and no matter whether the culmen is straight
or curved. With me the length of the bill is the shortest dis-
tance from the point indicated to the tip of the upper maii-
dible."
6. Length of tarsus. — Distance between the joint of the tarsus
with the leg above, and that with the first phalanx of the middle
toe below. Measure it always with the dividers, and in front of
the leg-.
COLLECTING SKINS OF SMALL BIKDS. 49
7. Length of toes. — Distance in a straight line along the upper
surface of a toe is from the point last indicated to the root of
the claw on top. Length of toe is to be taken without the claw,
unless otherwise specified.
8. Length of tlie claius. — Distance in a straight line from the
point last indicated to the tip of the claw.
9. Length of head. — Set one foot of the dividers over the base
of the culmen, and allow the other to slip just snugly down
over the arch of the occiput.
For skinning a small bird, the only instrument imperatively
necessary is a good-sized scalpel or a sharp penknife. You
can use a pair of small scissors now and then, if you have them,
to very good advantage, in severing legs and wings and clip-
ping off tendons. Have ready a dish of corn meal to absorb
any blood that is likely to soil the feathers. Now push a wad
of cotton up the vent, and we are ready to remove the skin.
No, there is one thing more. The wings lie close to the
body, and will be continually in our way unless we break them
so that they will fall back and leave us a clear field. It is the
humerus that must be snapped in two, as close to the body as
possible. Those of small birds are easily broken with the
thumb and finger, but in a large bird they must be treated to a
sharp blow with a heavy stick, or a hammer.
Lay the bird upon its back, with its head toward your left
hand ; part the feathers in a straight line, and divide the skin
from the centre of the breast straight down to the end of tho
breastbone, and on until the vent is reached. Cut through tho
skin only, for if you go too deep and cut through the wall of
the abdomen you will have the intestines and various other
troubles upon your hands.
Skin down each side of the bird until you come to the knee-
joint, which lies close to the body, and well within the skin.
Sever each leg completely at the knee, leaving the thigh attached
to the body, turn the skin of the leg wrong side out over the
fleshy part, quite down to the joint, and then cut away every
particle of flesh from the bone of the leg.
Sever the tail from the body close to the ends of the tail
feathers, without cutting through the skin. Now take the body
between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, holding it
4
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
at the hips,, raid with the other hand separate tho skin from the
back. From this point we proceed to turn the skin wrong- side
out over the shoulders and head. When* the wings are reached,
cut them off where they are broken, and
turn the skin down over the neck. Avoid
cutting1 through the crop. If blood flows
at any time, absorb it all with the corn
meal or plaster Paris.
Almost before you know it you have
skinned your bird down to the head, for
it hangs head downward during the latter
part of the operation, suspended on a
small wire hook thrust through the pelvis,
so that you can work with both hands.
It is a trifle more difficult to turn the
skin over the head. Push it up from the
back of the head with the thumb-nail,
working it patiently at all points, and
stretching tTie skin gradually until it will
pass over the widest part of the skull.
Presently the crisis is past, the skin slips
clown without trouble, and we see by the
way it is held at a certain point on each
side of the head that we have come to the
ears. Cut through the skin close up to
the head, and a little farther on we reach
the eyes.
Now be careful. Cut very slowly at the eye, and close to the
head, until you can see through the thin membrane and define
the exact position of the eyeball. Now cut through the mem-
brane, but do not cut the eyelid on any account. A little
farther and wo come to the base of the bill, where the skin and
our skinning stops.
Cut through the back of the skull so as to sever the head com-
pletely from the neck, and lay bare the base of the brain. Re-
move the brain from the skull ; cut the eyes out of their sockets ;
cut out the tongue and remove all flesh from the skull.
Skill each wing down to the first joint, or the elbow, and stop
the " wrong-side-out " process there. The ends of the second-
FIG. 11.— First Steps in Skin-
ning a Bird.
COLLECTING SKINS OF SMALL BIRDS.
aries must not be separated from the bone of the forearm, or
the ulna. It is possible to clean out the flesh from the forearm
and also from the arm bone (humerns) without detaching th'1
ends of the secondaries, as you will readily see. Cut away any
flesh which has been left at the root of the tail, but do not rut
the ends of the tail feathers.
The next thing- is to poison the skin. Do this with a. mixture
of powdered arsenic and alum, in equal parts. Some of our
most extensive collectors use no alum, simply pure arsenic in
liberal quantity-, but I consider that the use of alum also is
always desirable, and under certain conditions it is extremely
so. Some collectors use arsenical soap exclusively, even on
small birds, and on large birds I,
too, have used it quite extensively,
supplemented by an immediate
sprinkling of powdered alum, to
do the curing of the skin. For
genuine thoroughness in poison-
ing and preserving, I will back
arsenical soap and alum against
all other substances the world can
produce ; but in treating small birds
Hi at are to be made up as dry skins,
I prefer and recommend powdered
arsenic and alum, as stated above.
Whatever poison you decide to
use, apply it thoroughly to every
part of the skin, the skull, wings,
legs, and tail. Now put a ball of
c/otton in each eye-socket to fill up
the cavity, and you are ready to
reverse the skin and 1 tring it right
side out once more. It is usually
some trouble to get the skin back
over the skull, and that I accom-
plish in this wise :
Let the skin rest on the edge of the table, place both of your
thumbs on the back of the skull, and with all your ringers and
finger-nails, reach forward and begin to crowd the skin of the
Fio. 12.— The Skin Wronp Skle Ont,
and Ready to be Poisoned.
52 TAXIDEEMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING
head back where it belongs. At the same time, you must push
on the skull with your thumbs, as if trying to push it into the
neck, and in a very short time, by a combination of coaxing and
crowding, the skin made passes the critical point on the skull,
and, presto ! the whole skin is right side out once more. Now
take it by the bill and give it a gentle shaking to stir up the
feathers so that they will fall back naturally. Pluck outward
the cotton in the orbit into the 'opening of the eye, to imitate
the round fulness of the eyeball.
The wing bones of very small birds need not be wrapped with
cotton, but the leg bones should be, always. Now take a bunch
of cotton batting of the right size, and roll it between the palms
until it attains the proper size to fill the neck, and is a trifle
longer than the entire body and neck. Fold over one end of
this, take it between the points of your forceps, insert it through
the neck, and into the cavity of the skull. Tuck up the other
end at the tail, and give the cotton body its right length. Then
in the middle of the skin, pull the cotton roll apart sidewise,
spread it out and lay on it a ball of cotton to form the body.
Next, take hold of the broken humerus with the forceps, and
pull it inward until the joint of the wing appears, and the two
humeri lie parallel and close to each other. This draws the
wings into place.
Be sure to put enough cotton in the body of a skin ; for a
little plumpness and rotundity is desirable in a small skin.
Avoid making cylindrical bird skins; avoid the East Indian
native habit of crowding the breast of a bird clear up into its
neck, and also avoid stretching a skin.
We have now to finish the head by inserting a little bunch of
cotton in the throat, until that part is properly filled, and
plucking out or cutting off the surplus. The mandibles must
be held together by a thread or a pin until they have dried in
position. Next adjust the wings, legs, and tail. The tail
should be slightly spread, and there are two ways of doing this.
One is to reverse the natural overlapping of the tail feathers,
which is the quickest way, and quite satisfactory. The other
is to lay the skin on a board, put a pin through each corner of
the " pope's nose," spread the tail, and thrust the pins into the
board until the skin is dry. Finally, tie on your label, which
COLLECTING SKINS OF SMALL BIRDS.
should be as small as possible to contain the necessary data-
locality, date, sex, number, collector's name, measurements, and
remarks. Some collectors label only with numbers, cori"-
sponding with recorded data in a note-book ; but it is a bad
plan. Note-books often get lost, and then such specimens lose
half their value.
WRAPPING UP A SKTN. — There are various ways of " laying
out " bird skins. The best is to wrap each skin in a very thin
sheet of cotton batting or wadding, which draws witli the soft-
ness of down, and yet, when pinched or twisted at the ends, it
w^ •
-
-
.
- •
FIG. 13.— The Bird Skin in Position.
holds every feather in place. The bird skins prepared by Mr.
William Palmer, one of the National Museum taxidermists, are
fine examples of how skins should be made. Mr. Palmer's
method of shaping and wrapping up a small skin is as follows,
and the accompanying figures are from specimens prepared by
him : Take the skin up between the left thumb and forefinger,
at the shoulders, and pinch it together, while with the small
forceps you adjust the scapulars over the point of the wings.
Cross the feet, lay the skin breast downward on a thin sheet
of cotton battitog of the proper dimensions, and arrange the
feathers of the back, the wings, etc. (Fig. 13). Then lift the
outer edg^e of the sheet of cotton, bring it forward over the skin
toward the operator, so that it will cover the back (Fig. 14).
i">4 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
Next, lift the inner edge of the cotton sheet, draw it with gen-
tle pressure to make the skin of the right size, and lap it well
over the other. The two edges of the cotton sheet will stick
together very well by simply overlapping them.
The head can be adjusted by pulling on the cotton at that
< 'lid, and pinching the end together beyond the- head. The bill
must be set at the proper angle, and held by catching the point
in the cotton. Do not let the bill point straight out, for it will
stretch the skin of the throat too much ; neither should it point
up "at a right angle to the body, for the tip will be catching in
everything that comes near it. The best way with most short-
P&^Sy^a
;fM-j/ ;•):.••. :."•" .--:.' . a -, v.;; '••
FIG. 14.— The Skin Half Wrapped.
billed birds is to let the bill point at an angle of about forty-
five degrees to the axis of the body. Beaks that are very long
require special arrangement, as shown in Figs. 17 and 18.
Now lift the wrapped-up skin, lay it with the tail toward you,
breast uppermost, and with both hands tear the cotton open in
a straight line up to the base of the tail (Fig. 15). You can
now spread the tail by overlapping the feathers, or leave it
closed if you prefer. See that your label is on, adjust the toes
and legs carefully, then fold over the edges of the cotton and
overlap them, and the skin is done (Fig. 16). Always spread
the toes of all swimming-birds.
Another plan is to dispose of each skin in a little cylinder of
paper, made to fit, of course. This is the best. plan when you
are far from tho conveniences of home, and in a hurry. The
COLLECTING SKINS OF SMALL BIRDS.
effect of this, however, is to produce a cylindrical skin, which is
not a prize shape. Still another way is to make a small coruu-
FIG. 15.— Spreading the Tail.
copia'of stiff paper, and slip the skin into it, head first, after
which the large end is closed by bending in the edges. The
old-fashioned, corrugated drying-board is ail excellent resource
when you are in a great hurry with a number of specimens.
•
•'<v, •»,
-. 5*C,.a '•"
Fio. 16.— The S'.dn ful'y Wrapped.
The illustration on p. 56 (Fig. 17), from one of Mr. Palmer's
specimens, shows the shape a small skin should have to be con-
sidered perfect.
Freshly made bird skins should never be subjected to crowd-
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
ing or pressure, nor should old skins either, for that matter. If
you go far afield, and expect to collect hundreds of skins, you
should go provided with a light and
strong cheat, either made to open at
0110 side and contain a series of shal-
low drawers to receive skins, or else,
which is the next best thing, and very
easily made, a box containing a series
of shallow till? of varying depth,
standing one upon another from bot-
tom to top. Each drawer or till
should be made just deep enough to
hold skins of a certain size, but no
more, or else in travelling the skins
will tumble about. Remember it is
useless to try to make large collec-
tions of good skins in the field unless
you can take care of your finished
specimens. This is for specimens
freshly prepared and not yet dry.
After skins become thoroughly dry,
they can be packed " in bulk," in a
chest or trunk, by putting the largest
at the bottom, and filling the cavities
with the small skins which cannot
stand so much pressure. Bird skins
should always be packed in cotton
when they are to be shipped, giving
to each a soft, comfortable resting-
place, and the box must be filled full,
so that there will be no tossing about.
DETERMINATION OF SEX IN BIRDS.—
To a collector who is working under
difficulties this often seems like the
very " last straw upon a camel's back ; " but it must be attended
to in every case wherein the sex of the bird is not clearly and
unmistakably indicated by the plumage. If you can, get an ex-
perienced ornithologist to show you how to determine the sex
in difficult subjects (e.g., young birds, or birds midway between
FIG. IT.— A Perfect Bird Skin.
COLLECTING SKINS OF SMALL BIRDS. 57
two breeding1 seasons). But there are ways in which we can
help ourselves. If you begin with birds during- or near the
breeding1 season, you will have plain sailing- long1 enough to
become familiar with the subject.
In birds the organs of generation lie close up to the lumbar
vertebrae, near the kidneys, in the region called " the small of
the back." The best way to reach this region for examination
is to make a cut clear across the wall of the abdomen, break the
back over at the last pair of ribs, and the intestines will at once
fall down, exposing the lumbar region. You will then see the
kidneys — two large, dark-brown masses situated in the concavity
of the sacrum — and on their surface, at the upper end, lie the
reproductive organs. The testicles of the male are two dull,
whitish, ellipsoidal, or nearly round bodies, of the same size,
lying close together. The sign for this sex is the astronomical
sign for the planet Mars ( <3 ).
The ovary of the female is, except during the breeding sea-
son, the most difficult to distinguish. Look first for a little
bunch of minute round globules, of varying sizes and grayish-
white color. In the breeding season the eggs are easily found.
Failing in that, you must look for the ovary itself, which, when
found, will be recognized as a little, irregular, flattish bunch of
a light gray color. If you search with a magnify ing-glass, you
may be able to detect it by its peculiar granulated appearance.
The sign for the female is the sign for the planet Venus ( $ ).
CHAPTER VII.
COLLECTING SKINS OF LARGE BIRDS.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN" SKINNING LARGE BIRDS.— In
skinning a large bird you must have room according to your
strength and the size of your subject. You will need the usual
materials in quantity, plenty of table space, and a stout hook
depending from the ceiling at the end of a stout cord, to hang
your half-skinned victim upon at a certain stage of the pro-
ceedings.
With but few exceptions, the procoss in skinning a large bird
is, from start to finish, precisely similar in principle to that for
a small one, which has already boon described. When you get
the body about half skinned, and aro well started up the back,
thrust your hanging hook into the top of the pelvis, and suspend
the bird in mid air, so that you can work with both hands. Ba
careful, however, throughout the whole operation that you do
not allow the weight of the body of the skin to stretch the skin
of the neck.
If the head is small enough that the skin of the neck will pass
over it, skin right over it to tho base of the beak itself, and pro-
ceed in every respect as with small birds. If, however, the skin
of the neck will not go over the head, then skin the neck as far
toward the head as you possibly can (usually in such cases you
can go no farther than the lower end of the axis or second cer-
vical vertebra), and then cut it off.
The next step is to skin the head. Turn the skin right
side out, make a clean, straight cut from the top of the head
straight down the back of the neck for a sufficient distance to
allow the remaining cervical vertebrae to be be drawn up through
the opening. It is now a very simple matter to skin the head
and clean the skull.
COLLECTIXG SKIXS OF LARGE BIRDS. 59
The wing- of a large bird contains, between the elbow and the
so-called " shoulder-joint " (carpus), quite a quantity of flesh
lying1 underneath and between the radius and ulna. Whatever
you do with the wing, iiever cut the ends of the secondaries loose
from the ulna. In spacing and adjusting those secondaries
nature has done something which, to save your life, you cannot
do as well, and if you meddle with her work some one will be
sorry. Slit open the skin all along the under side of this long
joint of the wing, cut out all the flesh from around the radius
and ulna, and poison the interior thoroughly. Put in a little
filling of tow or cotton, and ssw up the opening. Even in small
birds, except the smallest ones, it is an excellent plan to slit
open the wing on the under side and put some dry poison on
the flesh, without stopping to sew up the cut. Clean out the
flesh and the oil sac from the root of the tail, and poison that
part so thoroughly that any insect who ever dares to think
once of harboring there will instantly drop dead.
A bird like a large heron, with long legs, or an eagle with
very thick legs, should always have the tendons removed from
the legs in order to facilitate curing, and for the mutual benefit of
both specimen and taxidermist Avhen, a little later, the two meet
in the laboratory and engage in a hand-to-hand struggle for
supremacy. To accomplish this, cut a slit lengthwise in the ball
of the foot where its rests upon the ground. Cut off the tendons
where they branch and attach to the toes, seize the end of each
large tendon with your pliers and pull it forcibly out of the leg.
You can do this with a fresh bird in about five minutes, wherca:;
in a dry skin that has been relaxed it will take you much longer.
This removes a fine subject for decomposition, and also leaves the
space neeess;tvv for the leg wire when the specimen is mounted.
After having removed the tendon I always give the legs a coat
of rather thin arsenical soap, both to cure them and protect
them from insects. Another excellent plan is to lay all such
long legs in a pan of salt-and alum bath solution for a few
hours to thoroughly cure them.
If there is a layer of fat adhering to the skin, it must be
scraped off and absorbed with corn meal, and scraped again un-
til it is all off. A layer of fat spoils a skin more quickly and
more effectually than any novice can be expected to believe
60
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
until lie sees for himself, in some of his finest ducks and brants,
just how it is done. If a skin is worth saving- at all, it is worth
preserving1 properly. Grease left on a skin " burns " it.
In making1 up a skin having- a long-, slender neck like that of
swan, goose, heron, or crane, it is an excellent plan (when pos-
sible) to take a stout wire, as long1 as the en-
tire neck and body, wrap a little tow or cot-
ton rags around it to partly form a false neck,
and insert it in the skin. This will often save
a neck from being completely broken in two.
Fill the body of the skin with excelsior, tow,
cotton, or crumpled paper, which, in distant
jungles, far from civilization, is an excellent
thing. In case of need, you may fill with dry
leaves, dead grass, in fact almost anything ex-
cept wool, hair, or other animal products. Do
not fill the body out to more than two-thirds
its natural size, unless you have abundant
storage room, and transportation facilities. If
filled out full size, large bird skins fill up
boxes and drawers wonderfully fast, and gen-
erally it is best to flatten such skins a little.
Large bird skins should always be sewn up.
The head must be properly filled out, and if
cut open at the back, that also should have a
few stitches, but not too many, for obvious
reasons. In laying out a large skin, if the
neck be long, bend it around to one side as
the specimen lies before you on its back, and
lay it on the side of the body along the edge
of the wing. If the legs are long, they, too, must be bent up so
that the feet lie upon the body. The accompanying figure,
from a specimen prepared by Mr. William Palmer, shows just
how a great blue heron should be done. The wings must be
carefully placed, the plumage dressed and nicely adjusted, and
the finished skin pinned up in a wide strip of thin cotton-cloth,
or anything else you please, to keep it in perfect shape until it
dries.
Of course, a large skin requires plenty of air while it is dry-
c ,
FIG. 18. — How to Shape
a neron Skin.
COLLECTING SKINS OF LARGE BIRDS. 61
ing, and several days' time besides. If such specimens are
packed and shipped before they are dry, mould and destruction
will be their portion, and the collector will do well to flee
from the wrath to come. In shipping bird skins in the East
Indies and similar climates, it is customary to solder them up,
air tight, in tin-lined boxes. Dr. W. J. Holland advises mo,
however, that dry wooden boxes are good enough if they are
tight, and are first painted over on the inside with melted crys-
tals of carbolic acid.
SPECIAL AND EXCEPTIONAL CASES. — Having fully considered
the various principles involved in making ordinary bird skins,
it is now necessary to note the exceptional cases, and state
how each is to be disposed of. It is my desire to equip the be-
ginner, as far as possible, against every emergency that is likely
to arise in ornithological collecting. For convenience we will
take a few of the avian orders, in their natural sequence, begin-
ning with the lowest.
THE STKUTHIONES : Ostriches, Emits, and Cassowaries. — Theso
great birds are prime favorites with the showmen, and many a
fine specimen often falls most unexpectedly into the hands of
an astonished " local taxidermist," to the ultimate enrichment
of some museum. Happy is he to whom falls a beautiful, glossy,
brown-black cassowary, with head and neck of rich purple, and
red and yellow, and what-not — truly a wonderful bird, and not
too large. A full grown African ostrich is an avian colossus, and
his enormous size makes him quite a serious matter.
With these great birds it is best to open the skin of each leg
from the lower end of the tibia all the way down to the foot, in
order to entirely remove the tendons. Detach the skin from
the bone all the way round, and cure it with arsenical soap and
a little alum. The leg should be cut open on the inside, well
back, where the seam will be most out of sight. After having
removed a skin, you will need to keep it soft, sometimes for
several days, perhaps until you can make a suitable manikin, if
it is a large ostrich. Cure the skin with arsenical soap and
salt (protecting the feathers carefully meanwhile), and keep it
wrapped up and away from the air until you are ready to put it
on the manikin for the last time ; then treat it with dry alum to
make it dry and harden properly.
02 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
OSDER SPHENISCI : The Penguins. — The penguin of the Ant-
arctic seas is the king1 of fat birds, but such magnificent mon-
sters as those brought horns by the Challenger, and now in the
British Museum, are worth a long trip to secure. Mr. Freder-
ick Pearcy, who collected and preserved the specimens, assured
me that it required two men to carry one, and that the removal
of the grease from the skins was a dreadful task. Of the larg-
est specimens, the huge legs and feet were cut off at the lower
end of the tibiae, and preserved in alcohol until they could bo
skinned and cleaned. Since it is probable that only a very few
of my readers will ever visit the rainy, foggy, storm-beaten and
God-forsaken land of the penguin, I will leave the question of
grease removal to the paragraph relating to the Larnellirostres.
LONGIPENNES : The Gulls, Albatrosses, etc. — The gulls, terns,
and petrels are so beautiful in flight that they are often mount-
ed with the wings fully spread, in flying attitudes. When a
bird is to be mounted thus, the large wing-bones must not bo
broken, but simply disjointed and cut loose from the body at
the shoulders. "When it is possible to do so, an albatross should
be mounted with wings outspread, to reveal to the student their
enormous length, and the disproportionate shortness of the
primaries and secondaries. If all the albatrosses in a museum
collection are mounted with closed wings, as they nearly always
are, the average observer gains not the faintest conception of
the form and size of the bird in motion — its normal condition.
STEGANOPODES : The Pelicans. — The great white pelican is
one of the most satisfactory and even agreeable birds to mount
that could possibly fall into the hands of an able-bodied taxi-
dermist. If I ever adopt a shield and an assortment of devices
with which to cover it, one of the latter shall be a figure of a
huge white pelican rampant ; for it was a bird of that species
that gave me a start in taxidermy. It happened in this wise :
The year before I penetrated the walls of my Alma Mater, its
venerable president sought to find among the students an (al-
leged) taxidermist, or at least the promise of one. He publicly
offered the princely sum of $10 to any one who could come for-
ward and mount a bird decently. The gauntlet thus recklessly
thrown down no one could pick up that year, and by the year
following, when I appeared upon the scene, it had grown cold.
COLLECTING SKINS OF LARGE BIRDS. C'J
Like another Lochinvar, I " came late " for that oiler. I had
seen one bird skinned and mounted, and I knew I could do one
like it. That was an old, rust}', second-hand crow. I petitioned
to have a chance to " stuff birds," but it fell on deaf ears. I
even went so far as to mount a squirrel, to show what I could
do, and although it was a very fair specimen for that benighted
period, it failed to win.
But one day some good genius sent a dead bird to the presi-
dent, for the museum, and with it heaven sent my opportunity.
Professor Bessey sent for me and said, " Now, young man, we
are going to see how much you know about stuffing birds.
We've got a specimen for you to try your hand on, and if you
succeed in mounting it decently, you may possibly get an op-
portunity to work in the museum." I replied, " Show me the
victim."
Ho took me to his room, raid there, spread out upon the cur-
pet, lay an enormous white pelican. His body was like a great
downy pillow, his bill was as long as a fence-rail, with a great
horny knot atop of it, and his huge j'cllow pouch would have
held a whole school of mackerel, teachers and all. And what
wings ! They were full-grown angel's size, and as white and
spotless as Gabriel's own. It seemed like sacrilege to touch
them. And such feet ! Enough of them would have covered the
college campus. I had never before seen such a bird, even in
my dreams. He really was larger than the maximum measure-
ments given by Audubon for that species. Professor Bessey in-
formed me that his name was Pelicanus erythrorliynchos. It
was not quite so long as his bill, nor so rough, but it was pretty
nearly.
With a pocket-knife, an old misfit pair of pliers, and a smooth,
flat piece of steel that had once been a file, I skinned and
mounted that bird, " in the highest style of the art," as the taxi-
dermic business card always hath it. I have also faint recollec-
tions of a great wad of oakum made into a body, a thimbleful
of arsenic, and a pair of eyes — merely this and nothing more.
As I hope to live, I believe I could feed a live pelican as mud)
arsenic as I put upon that great skin without even giving bin;
the stomach-ache ; but the bugs seemed to know that was my
first effort, and they have never touched him. I mounted him as
64 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
the Irishman played the fiddle at Donnybrook fair, neither by
note nor by ear, but, " be jabers, by main strength," and posed
and shaped him by Audubon's superb plate. He was pro-
nounced an unqualified success. I shaped his future, and he
shaped mine at the same time. When I saw him again, seven
years later, he was every bit as good as new, and I was aston-
ished to find how really good he was. He was the first bird
I ever skinned or mounted, and a lucky bird he was for me.
Had he been a dirty, greasy, old swan, think what a scrape I
should have been in !
LAMELLIKOSTEES : The Ducks, Geese, Swans (and Flamingoes). —
There are but two points to be spoken of under this head. The
first is that all the birds of this order must have their heads
skinned through a slit at the back of the head. The other is in
regard to cleaning.
All ducks, geese, and swans are very fat, even when they are
poorest. Were they otherwise, they could not livo on the water
as they do. Nearly the whole body is enveloped in a firm, tena-
cious layer of fat, into which the ends of the body feathers run
and take root, and bind the skin itself down so firmly that it
really becomes a part of the fatty layer. To remove the skin,
you must have a keen knife, and by hard labor slice through the
fat as you go. As a general thing, it is slow and tedious work.
When you begin, and all the way as you proceed, use plenty of
plaster Paris or corn-meal to absorb the free oil, and keep it
off the feathers.
After the skin is off tho body, and before you turn it right
side out, scrape the inside to get the oil off, absorb it with your
absorbent material, and scrape it again and again until the
grease is practically all off, and you have only the skin remain-
ing. This takes work. There is no royal road to making good
duck skins. If you think you can get along all right by over-
whelming the grease on the skin with arsenic and alum, and
venture to leave it half cleaned, you will pay the penalty later,
and it will serve you right. You cannot cure grease with pre-
servatives. You may fill a fat duck skin half full of arsenic, and
yet the oil will ooze out through the skin on the other side,
turning the feathers a dirty yellow color. The dermostes can
eat every feather, and also the skin itself, from the outside, with-
COLLECTING SKINS OF LARGE BIRDS. 65
out getting" a morsel of the arsenic. The fat simply acts as ;,u
impervious wall between the poison and the skin. Clean a duck
skin thoroughly or else throw it away. It used to be a common
thing to see duck skins with the breast feathers a solid mass of
nasty yellow grease from the oil that had run out from the
opening cut, but such specimens are becoming rare now.
If the feathers get soiled with grease, blood and dirt, wash the
plumage with clean turpentine and a soft tooth-brush, apply an
abundance of plaster Paris, rub it into the feathers, and imme-
diately beat it out with a supple switch, or piece of stiff wire of
proper size. If you have not these materials, wash the feathers
with warm water and a little soap, and dry as best you can,
according to what you have. Manipulate the feathers while
they are drying and they will come out soft and fluffy as in lif o ;
but if left to dry without this, they will remain in a bedraggled,
soaked, and stringy condition. This subject will be fully con-
sidered in a separate chapter (XXV.).
In making up the skin of a duck or gooso, a piece of wire
must be put into the neck, with the tow or other filling wrapped
around it, or failing that, the neck filling must be wrapped
around a small stick, the upper end of which is to be thrust
forcibly into the skull. The head is large and heavy, and the
neck is very small, so small that the skin will break in two if
there is not a wire or stick run through the body and neck into
the head to support the latter whsn the skin is being handled.
The feet of all web-footed birds should be spread while drying.
ALECTOEIDES : The Cranes a:id Herodiones. — There is but little
to add in regard to birds of either of these orders. The cranes
require a slit in the skin at the back of the head, but the heron.;
do not. The necks of the latter are very often filled too full in
making up a skin, and the neck filling is often made round,
whereas it should always be fat, like the actiial neck of the heron
or bittiu-n. It is not necessary to remove the tendons from the
legs of the small herons, ibises, etc., but the legs should always
be bent up and the feet disposed of on the body. The feet and
legs of all the above must be treated to a coat of thin arsenical
soap, for the benefit of insect pests.
5
CHAPTER Vin.
COLLECTING REPTILES.
OPHIDLE: Serpents. — All the small and medium-sized ser-
pents should be preserved entire in good, clean, ninety -five per
cent, alcohol, diluted with one-half its own bulk of water. If
the spirits is not as strong as ninety -five per cent., then dilute
with one-third water instead of one-half. There should be from
two to four incisions made along1 the median line of the belly,
each one a few inches in length, to make openings through
which the spirits can reach the abdominal region. Give the
specimen plenty of room until it is thoroughly penetrated with
the alcohol.
Large serpents must be measured carefully, slit open under-
neath in a straight line from the vent up to within six or eight
inches of the head, and completely skinned. A drj7 snake skin
is about as good as none at all for mounting. I have seen
many, but never yet knew of one being mounted well. By all
means preserve all snake skins in spirits, as described above, or
in the salt-and-alum bath. By making a head of cork it is
quite easy to take both the complete skin and skeleton of a
large serpent. If the head is to be mounted with the mouth
open, an extra skull must be procured.
LACERTILIA : The Lizards. — As with serpents, the small ones
should be opened underneath and preserved entire in spirits,
while the large ones, if alcohol is scarce, may be skinned in the
field, and the skins only put into the spirit-tank for preserva-
tion. In putting up specimens entire, the abdominal opening
must be large enough fully to insure the entrance of the liquid
into the abdominal cavity, or otherwise the decay of the intes-
tines may cause the epidermis to slip from the outside.
CROCODILIA: The Crocodiles and Alligators. — A word in re-
gard to shooting saurians. Go prepared to hunt and kill
COLLECTING REPTILES. 67
whatever specimens you require, for the chances are you will
not get any save what are brought to bag1 with your own trusty
(or rusty) rifle. To kill a crocodile, proceed as follows : Find
where he is in the habit of coming out on the bank for his daily
sun-bath ; then, at precisely the right time,
"Come where my love lies dreaming."
Sneak up as close to him as you can, get a position so that you
can attack him broadside on, and post a couple of natives close
by, primed beforehand with instructions to rush forward and
grab the scaly monster by the tail as soon as you fire. Esti-
mate the distance carefully, wipe the perspiration out of your
eyes, aim at the neck-bone, or the vertebral column anywhere
in front of the shoulders, and let drive. If the reptile's body
lies still and his jaws fly wide open, run for him like a quarter
horse, for you have hit his spine, and he is your meat if you
only get to him in time to lay hold of his tail. Take your rifle
along, for you m.iyht need it again, particularly if the crocodile
is more than ten feet long. If he requires a coup de grdce, give
him another bullet in one of his cervical vertebrae, and the sub
sequent proceedings will interest him no more.
It is quite a task to skin a ten-foot saurian properly, and to
preserve the skin so successfully that none of the scales will
slip off when the time comes for the skin to be softened and
stuffed. My method, which I have practised successfully with
the skins of eleven species of crocodiles and alligators, is as
follows : For the sake of science in general, and the taxidermist
in particular, measure the crocodile carefully and record the
dimensions. Divide the skin along the under side, following
the median line from the throat to the tip of the tail, in one
long, straight cut. Beginning at the end of each middle toe,
divide the skin along the bottom of the foot and the under side
of the leg, up to the point where the leg joins the body, but no
farther. Then begin at the edges of the first cut, and skin as
far down the sides of the body as possible. When the legs are
reached, detach them from the body at hip and shoulder with-
out cutting the skin, and continue on round the body until the
backbone is reached and the skin entirely detached. Sever the
68 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
head from the neck at the first cervical vertebra without cut-
ting the skin. Skin out the tongue and remove the flesh from
the palatal apertures and various cavities of the head. Skin
each leg by turning the skin wrong side out until the toes are
reached. Leave all the bones of each leg attached to each
other and to the skin itself at the toes, but cut away the flesh
carefully, the same as in skeletonizing. Remove from the skin
as much as possible of the. flesh which will be found adhering
to it. When the skin is thoroughly clean, immerse it in a
strong bath of salt and water, and allow it to remain twenty-
four to thirty hours. Then take it out, rub the inside and the
leg bones thoroughly with strong arsenical soap, after which
apply powdered alum liberally over the inner surface, so that
not a single spot is missed. Then hang the skin up by the
head (no danger of stretching in this case), and allow it to dry
in the wind and shade. "When almost hard and stiff, take it
down and fold it up as carefully as if it were a Sunday coat, so
that it can be packed in a box of ordinary dimensions.
Of course small crocodiles, and the skins of larger ones not
exceeding six feet in length, can best be preserved in alcohol,
as already described for lizards. Full instructions for " rough-
ing out " skeletons will be found in Chapter XXXVII. I will
only add to this paragraph the suggestion that of all the ob-
jects that a collector can gather, nothing so well repays in
every way the time and labor spent upon them as a few large,
well-made, and sufficiently hideous skins of crocodilians. They
are at once big, ugly, awe-inspiring, and marketable. The gen-
eral public is very fond of horrible animals from far-distant
countries, and I always gave it crocodiles galore.
CHELONIA : Turtles. — Go where you will in the warm regions
of the earth, you are almost certain to find representatives of
this order. In the tropics the species are very numerous,
highly interesting, and often of commercial vahie. Many a
time your own hunger will be appeased by a tender steak of
green turtle or loggerhead, or a terrapin stew, or a " soft-shell"
fried in batter, or a peck of terrapin eggs dug out of the sand,
fresh and otherwise. The rare and hideous mata-mata of South
America will make you a good meal, and afterward bring you in
$25 in hard cash. The hawksbill, with the valuable " tortoise-
COLLECTING REPTILES.
69
shell " upon his back, is " a thing- of beauty " and "a joy for-
ever," price, $15. Wherever you go collecting- in the tropics or
sub-tropics, turtles are your lawful prey.
How to Kill a Turtle. — Mr. Lucas says the best way is to do it
with chloroform, by tying a saturated cloth over the victim's
head, and keeping it there until death ensues. This is un-
doubtedly the most merciful way, but somehow I never had the
chloroform to spare.
My plan was to do
the killing in a short,
sharp, and decisive
onslaught with the
knife. With a small,
sharp saw (a dissect-
ing saw with an ad-
justable back, for the
small specimens),
saw through the
bridge which unites
the shell of the back
(carapax) with that
of the under surface
(plastron) at B, B
(Fig. 19) ; then, with
the quickest of work,
divide the skin
around the plastron,
as shown by the dot-
ted line A, A, A, A ;
with half a dozen quick strokes of the knife detach the plas-
tron from the flesh of the body, and lift it up until the inte-
rior of the body is exposed. Except for the sawing through
the shell, the rest is but the work of a moment. Now pierce
the heart instantly, and cut the nerk in two, which ends all
pain at once. The only merit of this method of killing is that
the victim is disposed of and put beyond the power of pain in
about three or four minutes. Very often it is better to make an
incision on the dotted line shown immediately behind the fore-
leg, and through this pierce the heart and lungs.
Flo. 19.— How to Open a Turtle.
70 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
The dotted lines in the figure show all the opening- cuts that
are necessary. The skin is left attached to the front of the
plastron for apparent reasons, but the plastron is turned up
and over the head to completely expose the interior. In the
case of a sea-turtle, which has the front linibs developed as
broad, flat flippers instead of feet, the opening- cut must extend
on up the leg, quite out to the extremity of the flipper.
The animal's legs, tail, and neck are now skinned precisely as
those of a mammal would be, with the exception that each of
these members is detached from the body and pulled inward in
order to turn the skin wrong side out. Of course all flesh is to
be removed from the animal, precisely as with a mammal, and
unless the skeleton is to be preserved, the shoulder girdles and
pelvis may be cut out with the flesh and thrown away.
Having removed all flesh from the entire subject, wash it
clean, and if it is not to be preserved in alcohol apply arsenical
soap and alum to the skin, putting some of the latter 011 the
outside as well as inside, and make up the skin otherwise as di-
rected for dry skins of ordinary mammals. The neck, legs, and
tail should have the right quantity of filling to prevent their
shrinking and shrivelling up to the point of unsightliiiess. Re-
member that the specimen may remain as you preserve it, and
be studied for years as a dry skin.
The box turtles are so constructed that when they desire to
retire from the world nothing whatever save the hard shell re-
mains exposed. They cannot be opened up as described above.
It is necessary to meet their wants by simply sawing a big rect-
angular section out of the plastron, leaving only a rim remain-
ing, and through the hole thus made the animal can be skinned,
and also stuffed when the time comes.
CHAPTEE IX.
COLLECTING FISHES.
As to the methods of procuring your fish, I have very little to
say. In all my collecting I have never yet seen the time when
it did not pay far better to buy fish specimens of professional
fishermen than to turn fisherman myself. With an enterprising
set of fishermen, much may be done by offering to purchase th •••
strange and curious species that are often unfit for food, and are
usually thrown away. Be first in the fish-market when the day's
catch is being landed ; be on hand persistently, in season and
out of season, and by so doing you will have the first chance to
buy the handsome sharks, rays, rhinobati, etc., before they are
ruthlessly cut up and sold piecemeal. Mask your enthusiasm ;
learn to dissemble, and then you will not need to pay more than
the ruling market prices, even for the specimens which are of
the highest scientific value. In Ceylon I once bought a remark-
able shark-ray for three shillings, which I sold again, almost im-
mediately, for $75 ; but it almost cost me a fit of apoplexy to
control my feelings while the bargain was being made. I
wanted to give three cheers for Rhamphobatis ancylostomus !
FIELD NOTES ON FISHES. — Colors. — In collecting and preserv-
ing fishes, happy is he who can sketch with a pencil, and thrice
happy is he to whom tho gods have given the ability to paint
in water-colors. If you are blessed with this ability, the correct
and imperative thing to do in collecting is to make a good out-
line sketch of each species, and color it carefully from a perfectly
fresh specimen. Then, when the glorious colors of the living
fish vanish like magic in the alcohol, or in the air, as the case
may be, there is your permanent and indisputable record, a
thing of great value to science until a better one is produced.
At the National Museum it has for years been the policy of
72 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
Dr. Goode to have an accurate water-color drawing1 made by
Mr. Schindler of every species of fish, cetacean, and reptile re-
ceived. The result is a series of exhibition casts in which every
detail of color is reproduced with admirable accuracy and life-
likeness. In preserving your fresh specimens remember that,
no matter what you may do, the colors will fade, and the more
delicate tints will disappear entirely.
Labels. — For alcoholics the best thing to use is a small bit of
pure sheet tin, or else sheet lead, with a number stamped upon
it. The next best thing is a parchment tag having the necessary
data written upon it with a lead pencil, which is much more
permanent in alcohol than any ink.
Scientific Facts. — Of the many facts the novice should try to
ascertain regarding each species, the following are the most im-
portant : All the local names ; degree of abundance ; time when
most abundant ; whether it is a permanent resident or is mi-
gratory ; if migratory, the facts relating thereto ; its habits ;
the depth and character of bottom preferred ; food ; what fishes
prey upon them ; value as food or for other purposes.
Methods of Preservation. — In the field, fishes may be collected
and preserved in four different ways, according to circumstances,
as follows: 1. Pressi'ved entire in spirits. 2. As skins, pre-
served in spirits. 3. As skins preserved in brine. 4. As rough
skeletons, either preserved dry or in spirits.
For the purposes of scientific study and close investigation,
the most valuable fish specimens are those which have been
preserved entire in alcohol, or some equally efficient preserva-
tive solution. Good alcoholic specimens rank next in scientific
value to fishes fresh from their native element. Ordinarily, how-
ever, the collector's resources are limited, and it is necessary for
him to preserve only the skins of the large and bulky specimens.
Tanks for Alcoholics. — For years past the National Museum
and United States Fish Commission have used square, box-like
tanks, made of copper and lined with tin, each tank having a
large round hole in its top, as large as the width of the top will
allow, and which is closed tightly by means of a screw cover.
These are known as " Agassiz tanks," for the reason that the
design originated with Professor Louis Agassiz. They are
light, not very costly, easily managed, and are about as nearly
COLLECTING FISHES.
73
perfect for their purpose as anything can be in this world.
They are made of three sizes, to hold four, eight, or sixteen gal-
lons. To protect them dur-
ing shipment a strong pine
chest is used, which is pro-
vided with wrought - iron
handles, hinged cover, hasp,
and padlock. The chests are
made to contain one sixteen-
gallon tank, two of sight gal-
lons, and either three or four
four-gallon tanks. The tanks
used by the National Muse-
um are made by W. S. Bar-
ker, Seventh and D Streets,
S. W., Washington, at the
following prices, exclusive of
the chests ; sixteen gallon
tank, $16.50 ; eight - gallon,
$10 ; foiir-gallon, $4.25 ; pine
chosts, complete, $3 each.
If Agassiz tanks are not obtainable, the next best and the
cheapest course is to have some large round cans made of gal-
yaui/ed iron, with tops that can be soldered on when the time
comes to ship specimens. Wooden keys are not of much use in
collecting, but both kegs and barrels are good enough to use in
transporting collections. Many a time I have helped myself
out of a difficulty afield by falling back upon the immortal
America M kerosene can, holding five square gallons, and which
goes to the uttermost parts of the earth.
Ght*x Jarx. — In the field I have never found any other sort of
a glass jar half as useful and safe as a common Mason fruit jar,
varying in size from pint to half-gallon. They are infinitely
superior to glass-stoppered jars, and far less liable to be broken.
PRESERVING FISHES ENTIRE IN SPIRITS. — Having taken all the
notes on a fresh specimen that you desire, the next thing is to
\\.-ish it thoroughly. But "before washing the fish," says Dr. T.
H. Bean, "look it over for external parasites; examine the gills
and the inside of the mouth carefully, as these are favorite situ-
FIG. 20.— Apassiz Tank, for Alcoholics.
74 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
ations. These parasites often furnish a clue to the migration of
the fish ; remove them if they can be taken off entire ; if not, let
them remain, and call attention to their presence in your ship-
ping notes. Preserve the parasites in vials or bottles, and pro-
vide them with labels, stating1 from what fish they came, and in
what situation they were found."
Many fishes when taken from the water have the entire body
and gills covered with a coat of persistent mucus that can be
removed only by determined effort. If you have any alum at
hand, you can in a moment make up a pint or quart of alum-
water, which will cut the mucus instantly, and clear it off. Use a
stiff brush — a large tooth-brush is the best thing— in. cleaning off
this mucus, and do not forget to cleanse the gills thoroughly.
Open the abdominal region of every fish by making a gener-
ous cut from the vent straight forward toward the ventral fins.
Usually the length of the opening should be equal to about
one-fifth of the entire length of the fish. If the fish be a largo
one, it has always been my practice to open the fleshy interior
still farther by working through this cut, and detaching the skin
from the flesh as far up each side as possible. This gives the
spirits immediate access to the entire mass of flesh, and the re-
sult is very speedy and perfect preservation without any change
whatever in the form or weight of the specimen.
Dr. Bean always directs that the viscera be preserved, to as-
sist in identification, even though it becomes necessary to re-
move them from large fishes and preserve them in separate jars.
Tv7hen there is no particular reason for their preservation, it is a
great advantage to remove them and throw them away. They
are — unless of scientific value — an abominable nuisance, and do
more to spoil good alcohol than all the rest of the fish.
Fishes that have begun to decompose, and have become offen-
sive, yet are too valuable to throw away, may be disinfected by
washing them inside and out with a moderately weak solution
of pure carbolic acid and water, or with a solution made by dis-
solving a tablespoonful of chloride of soda in a pint of water.
For years a very common formula for preservative alcohol has
been ninety-five per cent, alcohol diluted with one-third of its
bulk of water, or, in other words, three parts of alcohol and one
of water. If there is any fault to be found with this solution, it
COLLECTING FISHES. 7~>
is that it is stronger than is really necessary. I have preserved
barrels of alcoholic specimens in a solution composed of two parts
of proof spirits and one part water, and have never lost n speci-
men except through leakage. This solution is strong enough to
stand considerable deterioration without the loss of its contents.
I have never attempted to collect quantities of alcoholics
without an alcoholometer in constant use. This little instru-
ment costs but a trifle, and affords the only reliable means for
testing the strength of alcohol. Its use enables the collector to
exercise economy in the use of his spirits, and get the maxi-
mum benefit from it. Therefore I say, buy an alcoholometer at
all hazards, and carry it and a suitable test-glass with your out-
fit. Test the spirits on your specimens frequently, and you will
then run no risks of loss.
Keep a receptacle to use as a receiving and curing tank, into
which all fresh specimens are placed, with abundant room for
each to undergo the curing process. Every animal contains in
its body a heavy percentage of water, which must be, in great
measure, replaced by the spirits before the flesh can be pre-
served from decay. Into the first bath a great quantity of blood
and abdominal fluids will be soaked out from the specimen, and
it is bound to lose strength rapidly, and also become foul. As
long as it remains clean enough to use, keep up its strength by
the addition of pure spirits, and in it immerse all specimens
until they are thoroughly cured. Give them plenty of room at
first, and keep them from settling down to the bottom by put-
ting there a bunch of excelsior, tow, or cloth. While the
spirits in a can may be strong enough on top to preserve a
specimen, at the bottom, where the animal impurities settle,
it may be so weak that anything1 lying in it would soon spoil.
Often the tail of a fish which hangs upright in a jar will spoil
while the remainder will be preserved.
After specimens have rem;iiii";l in the receiving- tank for from
two to four days, according to size, put them in another re-
ceptacle in clean, fresh spirits, still allowing them plenty of
room. Finally, when ready to pack up and make a shipment
home, wrap each fish separately in a piece of thin, white cotton
cloth, just large enough to cover it well, dip it in clean spirits,
and without any tying or pinning of the cloths, lay the fishes in
76 TAXIDEllMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
your barrel like sardines in a box, as closely as they will lie
without being squeezed. Fill the receptacle full of fishes, head
it up, and then pour into it all the clean spirits it will hold.
In order to proceed with the second and third methods of
preserving1 fish specimens, it now becomes necessary to describe
a process.
How TO SKIN A FISH. — Of course, no one aspiring1 to become
a collector of fishes will remain in ignorance of the names of
the different fins. And, more than that, before he can prepare
even the rough skeleton of a fish he must know what its bony
structure is like. On the whole, there is a good deal to be
learned about methods in collecting fishes, and as a beginning
we must learn how to skin a scale fish. The methods with car-
tilaginous fishes will be considered later.
The principles with all scale fishes are precisely the same,
the only difference being in the greater amount of cold steel
and energy required for such great, hulking brutes as the jew-
fish, and the magnificent tarpon. For convenience we will take
a specimen about a foot in length ; for example, a striped bass,
a pike, or a red snapper.
As is the case with quadrupeds, the left side of a mounted
fish is always expected to be " the show side." Lay the speci-
men upon its left side, start at the vent with a stout pair of
sharp -pointed scissors, and divide the skin in a perfectly
straight line along the median line of the belly toward tho
head, stopping the cut when you approach close to the narrow,
tongue-like point which terminates between the lower angles of
the gill openings. Now reverse the fish, begin again at the
vent, and divide the skin with a clean cut through the scales,
in a line parallel with the base of the anal fin, and about half
an inch from where the scales meet the fin rays. This is really
a cut along the side of the fish, as low down as possible, made
necessary by reason of the anal fin. Continue this cut straight
back to the tail, as shown in the dotted line g-h in Plate IV.
You will find that the ventral fins are joined together in the
flesh by a strong bony arch, called the pubis, and this must be
divided through the middle so as to entirely separate the fins.
The anal fin -rays must now be cut loose from the interior rays
(called interhaemal spines), which are really their bony founda-
K
EH
E-
COLLECTING FISHES. 77
tion. The ventral fins must also be cut loose from the pubic
bones at the point where they are articulated. Now take the
cut edge of the fish skin between the left thumb and forefinger,
and with the cartilage-knife carefully cut the skin free from the
flesh. Be careful not to disturb the white layer of color pig-
ment which is spread like a silver lining of feeble tin-foil over
the inside of the skin. This is what gives the fish its silvery
color, and if skinned off or scraped away the skin will look like
colorless parchment. Whatever you do, do not disturb that color
lininy. Proceed with the skinning until the skin has been de-
tached from the entire upper side of the fish. This brings you
to where the dorsal and caudal fins are inserted.*
Now turn the fish over, and proceed as before, as far as you
can go. You presently reach the caudal fin, which must be cut
loose from the end of the vertebral column as far back in the
skin as possible. When this has been done, the skin and the
fleshy body still hang together by the attachment of the rays
of the dorsal fin to the interhaemal spines. Cut these apart
with the scissors, from back to front, close up to the skin, which
brings you to where the vertebral column joins the skull. You
will make very short work of that, which frees the fleshy body
from the skull. Now scrape away the surplus flesh from the
inside of the skin, wash it thoroughly, remove the gills (if they
are not to be studied), and lay the skin flat upon its side in your
tank of alcohol.
By thus preserving the skins of fishes, instead of whole speci-
mens, a great number of really large specimens can be pre-
served in a small quantity of alcohol, for at the last they can be
packed together, heads and tails, precisely like sardines.
SKINNING CARTILAGINOUS FISHES. — Sharks, Rays, etc. — The skin-
ning of a shark or saw-fish calls for no special instructions in
addition to the foregoing, except that the long, narrow, pointed
tail requires to be slit open along the right side of its upper
lobe for a considerable distance. Remember the principle that
wherever there is flesh, a way must be made so that it can be
removed, or at least reached from the inside by the preserva-
tive. Of the skull, nothing is to be left attached to the skin
*Some operators open a fish in a straight line along the middle of one side, but 1 have
never beeu able to see any reason for this preference.
78 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
except the jaws. The skeleton is wholly of cartilage instead of
bone, and is easily cut through.
The extremely flat, circular-bodied ray, also with a cartilagi-
nous skeleton, must be opened on the underside by two cross
cuts at right angles to each other, one extending from mouth
to tail, and the other from side to side. The fin rays are very
long stems of cartilage, set so closely together as to form a solid
sheet of cartilage extending from the thoracic skeleton out to
the extremities of the fins, which taper out to nothing. The
thoracic skeleton gives shape to the body of the ray, particu-
larly the back, and it must be left in place, with the skin of the
back attached to it. Cut through the fin rays where they join
the body, and this will enable you to skin down each side of the
fish until you get so near the outer edge there is no longer any
flesh. Stop at that point, cut the flesh away from the fin rays,
and cut away as much of the fin rays themselves as you please.
Clear out all the flesh and preserve the skin in a very strong
solution of salt and water (what is known to chemists as a " sat-
urated solution " ), or in alcohol if you have it to spare.
PREPARING ROUGH SKELETONS. — In about seven cases out of
ten, it is a far easier and more simple matter to rough out, clean,
and mount the complete skeleton of a fish than the uninitiated
would naturally suppose. A few fishes, such as the shad, have
more bones than the law allows, and the preparation of a com-
plete skeleton thus becomes a practical impossibility. Fortu-
nately, however, most fishes are more reasonable in the matter
of bones, and to these wTe direct our efforts.
First and foremost, study the bony structure of a typical scale
fish, learn what its principal parts are, and how they are artic-
ulated. Learn how the ribs lie, and how a row of slender, rib-
like bones called appendices, or epipleural spines, are attached
to the true ribs, and at their outer extremities touch the inside <>f
fJie skin along the lateral line of the fish. If you will take a
good-sized perch as your first subject, you will not be troubled
with any osteological extras, and the process will be as follows :
Lay the perch upon its side, and with a sharp scalpel cut
away the skin from the whole of the exposed side. Remove
all the viscera. By careful examination, ascertain the exact lo-
cation of the ribs, and particularly the row of epipleural spines
COLLECTING FISHES. 79
attached at the upper ends of the former. With a broad, flat
bone-scraper, or your knife-blade if you have nothing- better,
beg-in at the lateral line of the fish, and work toward the top
of the back, taking- the flesh away in chunks as you go. In a
very short time the vertebrae and the interhtemal spines are ex-
posed, and with a narrower bone-scraper the flesh is easily re-
moved from them.
Now turn the fish around, and with great care cut and scrape
the flesh away from the ribs and the epipleural spines. Do not
on any account detach the latter from the former, but at this
stage leave them attached to each other by a thin strip of flesh
for their better protection.
Do not separate the ventral fins by cutting through the pubic
arch, but with your small, curve-ended bone-scraper remove the
flesh from the angular recesses of these bones, and leave the an-
te vior end of the pubic arch attached to the coracoid. Next,
pick out the flesh from around the base of the pectoral fin, re-
move the eye from its socket, and whatever flesh the skull con-
tains. Thus does the bony structure of one entire side stand
revealed. The gills are of course to remain in place, as the
skeleton would not be complete without them.
There is but one thing- more to add. In treating- the other
side of the fish in a precisely similar manner, care must be
taken to not disturb the attachment of the intemeural and in-
terhaemal spines which join the dorsal and anal fin rays to the
processes of the vertebral column.
Having thus denuded the fish of its flesh, lay the skeleton in
a pan of water, and with a moderately soft tooth-brush, or nail-
brush, brush it carefully to wash away all blood and mucus. If
the bones are full of blood (which is very rarely the case), the
skeleton must be soaked in clear water for an hour or two, or
longer if necessary, to soak out the blood, so that it will not dry
in the bones and permanently disfigure them.
Hough skeletons of fishes may be preserved in alcohol, but
for many reasons it is much the best to dry them. Poison them
with dry arsenic ; do not put upon them either salt, arsenical so"/'.
or alum, hang- each one up by the head, and see that it dries in
good shape. The pectoral fins should lie well down upon the
ribs for mutual protection.
CHAPTER X.
COLLECTING MARINE INVERTEBRATES.
SPONGES. — A live sponge is simply a vast colony of protozoan
animals, each member of which lives an independent existence,
but all are at the same time mutually dependent upon each
other. The sponge of commerce, and the " cleaned " sponge of
the museum collection is, like a branch of coral, merely the
skeleton of the living aggregation. A live sponge is a dark-
colored, heavy, tough gelatinous mass, cold and clammy to
handle, quickly offensive if left in the open air, and utterly use-
less until " cleaned," or rid of its mass of animal matter. The
skeleton of a sponge may be horny, like that of the useful
sponges of commerce ; siUcious, like the marvellously beautiful
framework of the famous glass spongo of the Philippine
Islands (EuplecteUa) ; or calcareous, like the curious little Gran-
tia, which looks like a miniature bouquet-holder, with a frill of
spines around its open end.
Owing to the extreme scarcity of sponge collections, very few
persons know how great a variety of forms, and what really re-
markable forms, exist no farther from home than the waters that
wash the coast of our own beloved Florida. I once had the
pleasure of collecting no fewer than sixteen distinct species on
the beach between Biscayne Bay and New River Inlet, some of
them of remarkable form, and all of them nicely cleaned for me
by old Ocean.
Of course, I searched for sponges, and found many a fine spe-
cimen buried almost out of sight in the sand, — but what glori-
ous fun it was, to be sure ! There I obtained the large, coarse
"basket sponge" (Hircina campana}, a hollow, inverted cone,
often capable of holding a pailful of water; the remarkable
finger sponge (Tuba vaginalis), which forms clusters of upright,
COLLECTING MARINE INVERTEBRATES. 81
hollow cylinders ; a large cylindrical sponge of a rich brown
color, and beautiful wiry texture, called Verongiajistularis ; and
sponges that were like trees, like interlocked deer antlers, and
what not.
Professor H. A. Ward's last catalogue of invertebrates enu-
merated forty-three species of sponges that were on hand when
the list went to press. Of these, the largest specimen was a
huge Neptune's cup (Paterion neptuni), four feet in height, and
shaped like a gigantic goblet, which came from the neighbor-
hood of Singapore.
Therefore, I say, when on the sea-shore, be on the lookout for
sponges. If you can find them on the beach ready cleaned and
dried for you, so much the better ; but if you get them alive, the
soft animal matter must be macerated and washed away, just
as you would macerate the flesh from a large skeleton. Soak
them in fresh water for a short time to macerate the soft mat-
ter, then wash it out in salt water, and keep this up until the
sponge is at last clean.
CORALS. — The bleached white coral cluster of the cabinet is,
like the sponge, only the skeleton of its former self. "When it
was forcibly torn from its foothold at the bottom of the sea it
was covered with living coral polyps, which gave it the color
which is peculiarly its own. Some species, notably Madrepores,
when first taken from the water look like colored glass. The
main branches are of a yellowish-brown tint, shading toward
the tips to the most delicate and beautiful bluish purple. There
is no way to preserve these colors, because they are due entirely
to the presence of the living polyps. When those delicate or-
ganisms die, as die they must, the color vanishes, and if not
cleaned and bleached, the coral assumes a dead, smoky brown
appearance, suggestive of dust and dirt.
Therefore it is best to clean and bleach your corals at once.
This requires a little time, but the process is " so simple a child
can use it." Small specimens can be cleaned quickly by wash-
ing them in dilute muriatic acid, and afterward in clear water
to keep the acid from going too far, and then placing them out
in the sun to bleach. Large specimens cannot always be treat-
ed in this way, and the best plan for wholesale operations is to
place the coral on the ground, in a sunny situation, and dash
6
82 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
water upon it daily until the soft animal matter has been
washed away, and the wind and sun combined have bleached
the specimens to snowy whiteness.
As a general thing, the natives who live within reach of coral
groves are in the habit of gathering it in quantity, cleaning it
very successfully, and offering it for sale at prices that defy
competition on the part of any scientific collector whose time is
worth more than fifty cents a day. The best thing the collector
can do is to get acquainted with the native fishermen and boat-
men, treat them well and pay fairly, and then, if there is any-
thing in the sea that his collectorship wants, it will soon be
forthcoming. Thus, instead of the growth of the collection de-
pending upon one or two men, there will be from ten to twenty
local experts directly interested in it. I once came to a com-
plete deadlock with my interpreter and three boatmen on the
translation of the word " coral." They were Singhalese and Tam-
ils, and coral was worse than Sanskrit to them. Finally, as a last
despairing effort, I took a pencil and began to make a sketch of
a madrepore. The crowd watched its progress in breathless
silence until very soon one appreciative auditor shouted trium-
phantly, " Kold kalli ! " The crowd joyfully echoed it, the mys-
tery was solved, and in five minutes more we were afloat and on
our way to seek
" The treasures of the sea,
In the mystic groves of coral
Whore her spirit wanders free."
The packing and shipping of branching corals is a serious
matter. I have tried every way I could think of, and have
seen others do the same, and am firmly convinced that no mat-
ter how the large branching clusters are packed, they are bound
to get somewhat broken anyway ! Of course, if you care to travel
with them and see to their handling at every transfer, that is
another thing, but who can do that ? The trouble is that the
individual branches are so very heavy for the diameter of the
stems next the base, a sudden jar causes them to snap in two
by their own weight. But then corals are very beautiful, very
interesting, and no matter though they are troublesome, we
must have them.
In packing brain coral, and other compact forms without
COLLECTING MARINE INVERTEBRATES. 83
branches, the principal thing is to wrap them in sufficient soft
materials that their surfaces cannot get rubbed, for that would
ruin them. X>o not -pack a large chunk of brain coral without
putting a partition across the box to hold it firmly in its own
place, no matter how the box is turned. In Ceylon I once took
the trouble to divide a large box into twelve separate compart-
ments for the reception of that number of coral specimens.
In packing branching coral, a good quantity of soft, elastic,
fibrous material like coir, cotton, tow, oakum, or something
similar, is necessary. From first to last, take whatever precau-
tions are necessary to keep your corals from getting filled with,
dirt and litter. Each cluster must lie on a thick pad of your
fibrous material. In order to get downward pressure upon it,
to hold it in place without breaking the branches, take some
soft paper or cotton cloth, roll up a long, cylindrical pad of
cotton or something else, and thrust it far down into the larg-
est opening between the branches, with one end projecting
above the top of the cluster to receive and transmit pressure
from above. This principle, if properly carried out, will enable
the collector to so firmly fix even the most fragile cluster that
it is fitted to withstand pretty rough treatment in transit with-
out serious damage.
STAE-FISHES. — When star-fishes are first taken from the water
their arms are pliant, but after a bath in alcohol they become
perfectly rigid. If left to themselves when first put into spir-
its, the smaller and more spider-like species will almost tie
their arms into double bow-knots, and insist on keeping them
so forever after. Since the way to cure a star-fish is to soak it
in alcohol for from six to twenty-four hours, according to size,
and then dry it flat and in good shape, it becomes necessary to
pin the small ones firmly in shape upon thin boards before im-
mersing them, and then they will " stn.v put." See to it that
while in the spirits all your star-fishes, large and small, cure in
proper shape, flat, and with each arm flat and extended in the
right direction. After removal from the spirits, pin out all
those not already fastened upon boards, and then let them dry.
I have never found it necessary to poison the spirits, for the
reason that dermestes and other insects seem to respect a dried
star-fish for his own sake.
84 TAXIDERMY ATSTD ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
ECHINI. — In all tropic seas the collector is liable to find
echinoderms, " sea-urchins," " sea-eggs," or " sea-porcupines."
These creatures are usually spherical in shape, with the niouth
underneath, and the internal structure of the animal is covered
with a stout, calcareous shell of uniform thickness, which is set
all over on the outside with a mass of protecting spines, usu-
ally fine and very sharp -pointed, but sometimes thick and blunt.
In life the spines are movable, and by means of them the creat-
ure walks, or clings to its native rocks most tenaciously.
The best time to seek echini is at low tide, and the best
places are those where the shore line is composed of rough
rocks, scooped out here and there into shallow pools. Take
with you a large basket, a large screw-driver, if you have one,
or failing that, a knife with a long, stout blade. Wear old
clothes, unless you can afford to spoil new ones. When the tide
is low you can wade around in the now peaceful pools, and find
the echini in the sheltered crevices, clinging to the bottom, or
the perpendicular sides of the rocks, but always under water.
To dislodge them, the knife-point or the edge of the screw-
driver must be neatly and skilfully worked under the victim
far enough to enable you, with the exertion of some force and a
steady pull, to pry him loose from the rock, whereupon he be-
comes your lawful prey. Next comes the cleaning process.
With a small knife, detach the skin of the mouth parts from
the edge of the round hole underneath, in the middle of which
the mouth is situated, and remove all fluid and fleshy matter
from the interior of the shell. That done, wash it out thor-
oughly. The bony jaws, or " Aristotle's lantern," may also be
drawn out through the hole and thrown away — unless you hap-
pen to be collecting for some one who is studying the anatomy
of echini, in which case he must speak for himself.
Having cleaned your sea-urchin, put it in clean alcohol
(same strength as for fishes) and let it soak for about twenty-
four hours. This will prevent the spines from gently dropping
off, like leaves in autumn, when you proceed to dry the speci-
men. After soaking in spirits, put the specimens out in n
shady place to dry. It is a curious fact that all the echini of
Ceylon and Malayana lose their spines unless soaked in spirits
before drying, whereas those of the Red Sea, the Mediterranean,
COLLECTING MARINE INVERTEBRATES. 85
and the West Indies can be dried without soaking-, and the
spines will not fall off.
SHELLS. " Living " and " Dead " Specimens. — The first thing
that the amateur needs to learn about a shell is that it may be
living1 or dead. As a general thing1, what is technically called
a " dead " shell is worthless in a cabinet. A live shell is one
which has been collected with a living- mollusc in it, and then
duly cleaned, preserving- all its beautiful colors. A dead shell
is one in which the occupant died a natural death, has lain and
bleached in the sunshine until its colors are entirely gone, and
its form also ruined by the weather. Therefore I say, leave
dead shells alone, unless it be that you are making an exhaust-
ive collection of the species in a given locality, when a dead
shell which is identifiable is as good a record as a living- one.
Where a shell is actually devoid of color, a dead shell is as g-ood
as a living one, provided it is collected before its edges or its
angles have been rounded by exposure to the sun and rain.
Many a living- shell has an epidermis, the same as an animal,
while a dead shell has none.
When shells are obtainable, who can resist the impulse to
g-ather them ? The man, woman, or child who is proof against
the seductive powers of the beautiful and many-colored shells
of the seashore "is fit for treason, stratagems, and spoils."
Next to the pleasure of collecting shells one's self is that of
witnessing the keen delight of children and ladies in gathering
these beautiful treasures of the sea. If you have never yet had
an opportunity to stroll along the smooth sands of an ocean
beach at low tide, and gather your basketful of beautiful shells,
curious sponges, bits of coral and coralline, while your soul is
soothed by the rhythmic music of the surf, then I pity you.
You have indeed yet something left to live for.
Hooker has divided the shell-bearing mollusca into three
great groups — land, fresh -water, and marine — and the shell col-
lector will do well to study each one separately.
Land Shells. — These are most abundant in the tropics, less so
in the subtropical regions, and are rare elsewhere. They are
seldom found where moisture is not abundant. In the tropics
they are to be collected all the year round, but in the temper.-itr
zone it is best to collect them in the autumn, when they are
86 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
fully grown. It is impossible, without devoting too much
space to this subject, to give more than a general idea of the
situations in which land shells are found. Some species are to
be looked for on trees and bushes ; others on rocks and stone
walls; others again on the ground, and others again on the
blades or in the roots of grass. In the tropics it is particularly
desirable to watch for the beautiful land snails, which are
almost strictly arboreal in their habits. They are to be found
on the trunks and leaves of palms, the banana, myrtle, orange,
and scores of other trees and shrubs.
Fresh- Water Shells which inhabit clear and shallow water are
easily gathered with a stout hand-net. Where the water is
murky, or so deep that the bottom cannot be seen, it is neces-
sary to have an instrument like an iron-toothed rake, with the
teeth set closely together, to be used as a sort of clam-dredge,
raking the bottom and gathering up the mussels. In our own
country the amateur collector will doubtless be surprised at the
number of species of Unio which will repay the labors of a
diligent collector.
Marine Shells. — If you would have one of the jolliest picnics
in the world, don a suit of old clothes, equip yourself with a
stout basket, a screw-driver with a long handle, and a case-knife
with a thin blade,
" Hang up thy lute and Me thee to the sea."
Go before the tide is at its lowest ebb, and search in the vicinity
of the largest bowlders, under ledges of rock, under loose stones,
in shallow pools, in bunches of sea-weed, in fact everywhere
along the shore. In these various places you will find cowries,
oriners (Haliotis), chitons, limpets, and more others than I could
name in an hour.
When wading in shallow water it is well to look out for the
pestiferous sting-ray, and not step on one unawares, lest you
find its caudal spine driven through your foot like a poisoned
arrow. But, fortunately, they seldom trouble the collector.
With the limpets, chitons, and other small shell -fish, you must
work the point of your case-knife under them, and with it grad-
ually detach them from the rock. Where such prey is plenti-
ful, the collecting of it is grand fun, I assure you.
COLLECTING MARINE INVERTEBRATES. 87
There are many bivalves which burrow or bury in the mud or
sand, which must be dug out with a stick or trowel, while other
species, still more enterprising, bore into wooden piles, and
even into rocks ! These, of course, can be collected only with
the aid of a hatchet, or chisel, or stone-haminer, as the case may
be. If you are on the Florida coast you will do well to search
over the coral reefs and the mud flats at low tide. On the latter
you will find conch-shells, piimas, and numerous other species.
I once made a very successful search for pinnas by wading around
barefooted on a sandy flat on which the receding tide had left
the water but little over a foot in depth. These shells were
always found standing up in the sand, at bay. with their sharp
edge up. By going barefooted as I did, you find the shells by
stepping on them and cutting your feet, which is to be accom-
plished, however, without hurting the thin edge of the shell.
A cut foot will heal up, but a broken shell never will.
CLEANING SHELLS.*-— In gathering shells, particularly the ma-
rine species, many of them will be found covered with a thick,
leathery, and persistent epidermis, and many others will be
so buried under rough, limy accretions that their own fathers
would scarcely recognize them. However beautiful such shells
may be when cleaned, it is no child's play to clean them andgeb
them ready for the cabinet. To any one willing to learn, the
processes are really very simple ; and what manual labor under
the sun could be more interesting to a lover of natural history ?
Removing the Animal. — With a large shell, such as a conch,
the first step is to remove the living animal. In some cases I
have accomplished this by hooking a fish-hook into the head of
the animal and hanging it up so that the weight of the shell
constantly pulling down on the animal would cause it to gradu-
ally relax and draw out. An excellent plan is to place the shell
for a few days in fresh water and macerate the animal sufficiently
that it may be drawn out. Fortunately the great majority of
molluscs are very small, and it is possible to prepare them for
* For the best part of the information given under this heading I am indebted to 31 r.
I. Greegor, the well-known dealer in sea-shells and Florida " curios," at (>1 Laura Street,
Jacksonville, Fla., who is an acknowledged expert in the treatment of shells, not
only in cleaning, but in cutting sections, polishing, etc. I obtained the facts from him
while he occupied a very high position in the Smithsonian Institution — in the north
tower, at least fifty feet from the ground.
88 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
tlie cabinet without the necessity of removing- the animal. Mr.
Greegor s plan is to soak the shell in alcohol for a few days, to
completely preserve the animal, and then dry it thoroughly to
cxpol all the water from it. "When that is done, the final step
is to pour into the shell, through a rubber tube, a little thick var-
nish, or hot beeswax mixed with a little vaseline to make it
ilow readily, and thus cover the dried-up remains of the animal
with an impervious coating which does away with all odors
which might otherwise arise from it. This part of the process,
be it understood, is to be attended to after the cleaning and pol-
ishing has been done.
Removing the Epidermis. — The epidermis is so tough and hor-
ny, and sticks so tightly to the shell that tools cannot remove
it successfully and it must be done chemically. Make a strong
solution of chloride of lime and water, by putting into a jar
one-fourth its bulk of chloride of lime, two-fourths water, and .
leaving the remaining fourth part of the space for the froth that
will rise. Soak shells in this pasty solution for a short time,
and it will eat the epidermis off.
Removing Limy Accretions. — The bulk of all these thick, ir-
regular coatings must be removed with steel tools — file, scraper,
knife, sand-paper, or hammer — to suit each individual case. The
tool that Mr. Greegor most relies upon is a small and very light
hammer, made especially for him, which is shaped somewhat
like a square-headed tack-hammer, with the pointed end drawn
out to a blunt cutting edge, like the edge of a cold chisel. With
this cutting edge a skilful hand can peck the lime or coral in-
crustations off a shell very neatly, and without injury to the sur-
face of the specimen. Acid will not remove the thick, limy de-
posits, and they must be cleaned off by mechanical means.
After the bulk of the limy deposits have been removed by
means of tools, the shell usually has a dull, lustreless appearance,
and appears to require something that will remove the remain-
ing particles of lime, impart to it a permanent gloss, and bring
out its beautiful colors. Fortunately there is a way to do this
to perfection, which consists in dipping the shell in a weak so-
lution of muriatic acid and water, boiling hot. The strength of
this solution must vary according to the nature of the specimen.
For thick and strong shells, which by their solid character you
COLLECTING MARINE INVERTEBRATES. 89
are assured cannot be damaged by a maximum of acid, put 3
parts of muriatic acid in 10 parts water. For thin and delicate
specimens, use 1 part acid to 10 of water, varying- the amount
of acid from 1 part to 3, as your experience will soon teach you
is most desirable. Put this solution in a porcelain kettle, bring
it to a boil, and then with a pair of wooden tongs or forceps dip
each shell into it and hold it there for a second or more, as may
be necessary. On removing it, wash it in clear water and dry it,
and if its appearance is not satisfactory clip it again.
For very delicate shells, having a thin surface color, such as
the Cypreas and Olivias, or such shells as have very delicate
sculpture, the weaker solution is best. When it is desired to
cut more on one part of a shell than another, the acid may be
applied with a brush, finishing with a quick dip. Never allow
any of the acid solution to remain on the shell, or it will eat into
it and dull the lustre. For fine work, dry each specimen with a
towel.
Shells which have on their exterior a great deal of horny or
organic matter, such as Haliotis, Ostrea, Lingula, and a few others,
work badly in acid, and require to be brushed constantly while
cutting, to remove the organic matter, for the reason .that the
acid acts only on the lime of the shell.
Chloride of lime and muriatic acid are both very volatile, and
when not in use should be kept in tightly closed vessels.
CHAPTEK XL
COLLECTING BIEDS' EGGS AND NESTS.
IDENTIFICATION. — Positive and unmistakable identification of
the builder and occupant of a nest is quite as imperative on the
collector as the gathering1 of the nest and eggs themselves.
There must be no guess-work on this point, for eggs without a
pedigree are often valueless. If an oological expert is within
reach — one who can tell to a certainty the species of doubtful
eggs, or if the eggs themselves are so characteristic and unique
in their shape, size, and markings as to render their certain
identification an easy matter, then is it safe to take home a
" find " without finding the owner.
It is only the fledgling oologist who needs to be told that in
all cases of doubt regarding the identity (i.e., the exact species)
of a nest-builder, the only proper course is to collect the bird as
well as the nest and eggs. This may often involve long watch-
ing, but it relieves the result from all uncertainty. No collector
should think of going afield in quest of nests and eggs without
taking his gun along. In South America, the only way in
which I could get possession of the wonderful pensile nest of
the crested cacique was by cutting off the limb to which it
hung, with a rifle bullet.
In all timbered regions the collector must have a pair of good
climbing-irons, such as telegraph linemen use, to enable him to
climb with ease the nest-bearing trees that would otherwise
defy him. It was before the days of climbing-irons that aspir-
ing Sir Walter Raleigh wrote for the fair eyes of Queen Eliz-
abeth,
" Fain would I cliinb, but that I fear to fall,"
to which his august mistress promptly responded with a piece
of wisdom which every young oologist will do well to paste in
his hat :
" If thy mind fail thee, do not cliinb at all ! "
COLLECTING BIRDS' EGGS AND NESTS.
91
Very good and serviceable climbing-irons can be obtained of
Mr. Frank B. Webster, 409 Washing-ton Street, Boston, for
$3.50 per pair. Mr. Webster also keeps, at his very complete
naturalist's supply depot, nearly every requisite that an
oologist or taxidermist requires, except one thing that is in-
dispensable in hunting and lofty tree-climbing, — nerve. Ev-
ery collector or taxidermist should send Mr. Webster ten
cents for a copy of his illustrated catalogue, which of itself is
probably the finest of its kind ever issued, and in which all
naturalist's and oologist's supplies are pictured, described,
and priced. The following are the principal articles needed
to make up a proper outfit for an egg collector, and Mr. Web-
ster's prices thereon :
Collecting-box, 75 cents.
Egg drills, six sizes, 15 cents to 81.50.
Calipers, for use in measuring, CO cents.
Embryo hooks, 25 cents.
Embryo scissors, 25 cents to $1.50.
Egg measures, 75 cents to $1.00.
Pasteboard trays, for eggs, per dozen, 12
cents.
Pocket-case (leather), complete, with drills,
blower, hooks, scissors, and forceps,
$5.00.
Climbing-irons, per pair, $3.50.
COLLECTING NESTS. — Our boys pay too much attention to col-
lecting eggs, and not half enough to nests. To the average
observer who takes an interest in perusing the pages of Nat-
ure's story-book, a fine collection of bird's nests is a joy forever.
It is ever ready to unfold chapter after chapter of bird lore,
tales of wonderful intelligence and divine ingenuity in adapting
means to ends, and stories galore of difficulties surmounted by
the cunningest little architects in the world. Notice, if you
please, the bewildering variety of materials employed in the
construction of these bird-dwellings, great and small. Why,
even the human architects of our own time are completely sur-
passed by the Baltimore oriole, the marsh wren, and the hum-
ming-bird.
There is food for thought and cause for admiration in a really
good collection of bird's nests. To me there is much more of
interest in any nest than in the eggs it contains. The latter is
a plain and simple product of nature, to wrhich the bird is
merely an interested party to circumstances beyond its own con-
trol. The former is an exhibit of the instinct, intelligence, rea-
soning powers, industry, and mechanical and artistic skill of a
92
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
living creature of a high order. The nest is what the bird
makes it, and it often tells quite a story. Boys, let us give
eggs and skins a rest, and make a fine collection of nests, in
situ, as the rockologists say. We can do this after the nest-
FIG. 21.— Bird Nest, in situ.
lings have flown, if you like, without stealing any eggs or shed-
ding any innocent blood. After the young have tumbled out, the
nest is a back number, and becomes your lawful prey. Take it,
and enjoy it, without remorse over blood that you haven't shed.
The most interesting and valuable nests are those that are
collected in situ, or, in other words, in the particular crotch, or
bunch of grass, or bush in which the bird placed it. Anything
that will show just where a nest was placed by its builder adds
immensely to its interest, and increases its scientific value.
The accompanying illustration of such a nest in Captain Ben-
dire's collection (Fig. 21), may be taken as an example of how
nests of a certain class can be collected and displayed. The
section of the sapling was sawn squarely off a few inches below
the nest, and screwed (from below) upon a highly polished
ebonized pedestal. In drawing this specimen the label was
removed in order that no portion of the principal object should
be concealed, but Captain Bendire's system of labelling is fully
shown in another figure.
COLLECTING BIliDS' EGGS AND NESTS.
93
The possibilities in collecting- and displaying nests in *itn
are almost endless. Indeed, so far as I have observed, this is a
new and very attractive field for the collector, for although I
have visited a great many large museums, and in both the New
and the Old World have seen many ornithological collections, I
have never yet seen a collection of birds' nests which repre-
sented a tithe of the possibilities in that direction. Every
oologist should have in his library a copy of Rev. J. G. Wood's
charming book, " Homes without Hands," which portrays
many of the wonders of bird architecture.
In collecting nests one must go prepared to saw off branches,
to cut sections of grassy earth, to gather up big tufts of grass,
and transport all these to some safe destination. Very often it
will be necessary to protect a nest by filling its cavity with
some soft material, and then with fine thread or wire to wrap
it securely to the limb on which it is placed. Or again, it may
be necessary to remove a nest temporarily from its resting-
place, wrap it thoroughly, and transport it separately to the
museum, to be put in its place later on.
Most naked nests, i.e., those that have been plucked from
their resting-place, require to be wrapped to keep them from
gradually falling to pieces. . This may be done with fine thread
of the same color as the outside
materials of the nest, or, what
Captain Bendire uses and rec-
ommends as being better, the
finest kind of wire which, in
large cities, can be bought,
neatly made up on spools, at
five to ten cents a spool. The
wire or thread is wound on
quite as one would wind thread
on a ball, except that the wire
must never be allowed to cross
the cavity of the nest, which
would at once make it conspic-
uous. Put oi) only enough winding to hold the nest well to-
gether, and distribute it so that the wire will not be noticed
when the nest is placed on exhibition.
FIG. 22.— Wire Standard for Nests.
94
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
For the display of naked nests, Captain Bendire uses a very
simple but ingenious little standard made of four wires twisted
together so as to form an upright stem, a horizontal platform
of the right size, with four perpendicular standards to receive
and hold the nest. These standards are easily bent to conform
to the shape of the nest, and if the upper ends project above
the nest they are snipped off with a pair of cutting pliers. The
illustration on page 93 (Fig. 22) shows the exact character of the
wire standard, and Fig. 23 shows it in use, supporting a naked
FIG. 23.— Nest on Wire Standard, with Labels.
nest. Captain Bendire's method of labelling his nests is also
shown in full. It is to be noted that the locality of the speci-
men exhibited, and the name of the collector, appears in full
upon the label — two features which should never be omitted on
a specimen that is of sufficient value to occupy a place in a mu-
seum. Nevertheless, by less careful curators both these state-
ments are frequently omitted from labels.
COLLECTING EGGS. — In connection with a collection of nests,
each nest holding its own lawful and original contents, a good
collection of birds' eggs possesses much interest and beauty.
COLLECTING BIRDS' EGGS AND NESTS. 95
In collecting- and preserving egg's, the most difficult feature
of all is to remove the embryos successfully. In the days when
I diligently collected eggs in many lands, it seemed to me that
out of every dozen eggs I gathered, about thirteen contained
from one to two embryos each ! But there are ways in which
this difficulty can be successfully overcome.
The full set of eggs laid by a bird for one brood is called
a "clutch," and in collecting it is of scientific importance
that whole sets should be collected and always kept sepa-
rate, and the number of eggs in each set taken should be re-
corded.
Eggs are always blown through a small, round hole in the
middle of one side, preferably in each instance on the poorest
side of the egg, if it has one. Of course, the smaller the egg,
the smaller the drill must be, and the greater the care in hand-
ling. It is often a good plan to pierce the shell with a needle
in order to furnish the drill a point of attack. If an egg is
cracked, or happens to be of such value that it must be saved
at all hazards, reinforce it by pasting narrow strips of gold-
beater's skin or court-plaster across the line of fracture.
Having drilled the hole, insert the end of a small wire, having
a small portion of the end bent at a right angle, and if the
embryo has not begim to develop, or happens to be quite small
and soft, twirl the wire rapidly between your thumb and finger,
to thoroughly break up the contents of the egg. Having ac-
complished this, insert the tip of your blow-pipe (the best in
the world consists of a tube of glass bent at a right angle and
terminating in a fine point, with the large end set in the end of
a rubber bulb, which saves the mouth and lungs all trouble) and
with gentle and gradual pressure blow in air. Hold the egg
with the hole downward, of course, so that the contents will run
out freely. Go slowly and carefully, even coaxingly, for too
great pressure will burst any ordinary egg in two parts very
neatly. If the embryo is small and disposed to be accommodat-
ing, help it out by inserting the point of your smallest scissors,
snipping it to pieces, and then drawing out the parts, one by
one, with your smallest forceps.
Having emptied the egg of its contents, introduce some clear
water by way of the blow-pipe, wash out the inside thoroughly,
96 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
and in case the egg- is in a clean, healthy condition, it can now
be laid away on cotton or corn-meal, with the hole downward,
to drain and get dry. Observe this point, however. The thin,
membranous lining1 of an egg1, which the point of the drill
pierces but cannot cut away, often closes together inside the
hole so closely as to retain, for some time, whatever water might
chance to remain. For this reason it was my custom to cut
away this membrane around the edges of the hole. Captain
Bendire remarks that "eggs that have been thoroughly cleaned
will retain their original color much better, and insects or mice
are not so apt to trouble them."
BEHOVING LARGE EMBRYOS. — It often happens that eggs are
taken quite near the hatching point, containing embryos so
lusty in size, and so " very fillin' " that their successful ejectment
seems impossible. Nil detperandum. The way out of the diffi-
culty is through a very small hole. On this point I appealed
to the highest authority, Captain Bendire, and he kindly gave
me, in general substance, the following directions :
![n the first place, make up your mind to go slow, and take
plenty of time. If the egg is valuable and the embryo is large,
reinforce the egg all over with strips of gold-beater's skin or
court-plaster. Having drilled a fairly large hole, then insert the
head of a needle in a small stick for a handle, and with the point
pierce the embryo in twenty or thirty places. The egg sac,
which is always present, should be taken out, if possible with
the forceps, to give room for water.
Having cleared out the egg as far as possible, fill it up with
water to assist in the decomposition of the embryo. Cover the
bottom of a box with a layer of cornmeal or saw-dust ; lay the
egg on this, with the hole upward (still full of water), cover the
box, and place it under a stove or in any other place warm
enough to hasten the process of decomposition. Work at the
egg a little about every alternate day, but without hurrying
matters, and keep this process in operation until the embryo
softens, falls to pieces, and is ready to be drawn out piecemeal.
In removing a large embryo, try to get hold of the tip of the
mandible with the small forceps, so that it can be drawn out,
point foremost, without splitting the shell.
Eggs that emit an offensive odor after they have been blown
COLLECTING BIRDS' EGGS AND NESTS. 97
need to be rinsed out with carbolic acid and water, or some
equally good disinfectant.
It is, of course, to be understood that eggs must be clean on
the outside before they are fit for the cabinet. Usually soap
and warm water is sufficient to remove dirt and stains, but oc-
casionally a particularly hard case calls for the addition of a
little washing soda in the water. The last washing, however,
should always be in clear water.
Inasmuch as a label cannot be attached to an egg, the data
necessary to give the egg a respectable position in the oological
world must be written on the under side of the egg itself, either in
lead pencil or India ink, which is capable of being erased at will.
The following are the data that should be recorded on every
egg collected and kept :
1. Name of species, or number in A. O. U. check list, if North
American.
2. Collector's number, which belongs to every egg of a given
set, and refers to his catalogue and field notes.
3. Number of eggs in the set, or " clutch."
4. Date in full.
In packing eggs for shipment, a great many small boxes of
wood or tin are absolutely essential, and in these the eggs must
be carefully packed in cotton, each one separated from the rest
of the world by a layer of cotton. It is an excellent plan to
wrap every large egg separately in cotton, as oranges are
wrapped in papers. Captain Bendire recommends the making
of divisions, one for each egg, with strips of pasteboard, like
the crates in which egg producers pack eggs for shipment to
market. This gives each egg a compartment by itself, with a
bit of soft cotton cloth at top and bottom. If produce dealers
can afford to take such care of eggs worth only thirty cents per
dozen, surely oologists can do the same when they are within
the pale of civilization, and can get the materials.
At the National Museum the duplicate eggs are stored in
small, rectangular, shallow pasteboard trays, or half boxes, each
of which has its bottom covered very neatly and exactly with a
section of cotton wadding, which gives a soft, springy cushion
for the eggs to lie on without the undesirable fluffy looseness of
ordinary cotton batting.
7
PART IL— TAXIDERMY.
Keeping ererlaxtingly at it brings success.
CHAPTER XII.
THE LABORATORY AND ITS APPOINTMENTS.
IT would be impossible for me to dwell too strongly upon the
importance, nay, even the vital necessity to the taxidermist, of a
commodious and suitable workroom, and a good supply of proper
tools and materials. Anj^one setting up a store of any kind
meets the expenditures for fixtures and furniture as a matter of
course ; but the average taxidermist would consider it a killing
thing to invest from $100 to $200 in good tools and materials.
First-class tools, and a good assortment of them, are indispen-
sable allies in the production of the finest kind of work in the
shortest possible time.
In taxidermy let us have no making of bricks without straw.
As well might an artist attempt to paint a grand picture witli ;i
sash tool as a taxidermist attempt to mount fine specimens with
a dull knife, an old file, and a pair of rusty pliers.
Let us suppose we are fitting up a taxidermic laboratory in
which to mount all kinds of vertebrate animals, great and small.
To begin with, we must have a good room, if possible 15X25
feet, or even larger, with good light, a high ceiling, and an
abundant supply of water. There must be somewhere a store-
room for bulky materials, and a drying-room for freshly mounted
specimens. There must be provided somewhere, for the wet
mammal skins, a big, box-like tank lined with sheet lead, for
very large objects, and some alcohol barrels for smaller ones.
100
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
These must be provided with tig-lit covers, or the salt-and-alura
bath will evaporate with great rapidity.
After the above, our laboratory will require the following-
FURNITURE AND FIXTURES. — A heavy work-table, 8 feet long-,
4 feet wide, and 2 feet 6 inches high ; top 1| inch thick.
A tool case and chest of drawers.
A stove, a chopping-block, a heavy bench vise.
A grindstone, a blacksmith's anvil, and portable forge.
A water-tight platform on castors, on which to stand large
mammals that are wet and dripping.
TOOLS.
2 killing-knives.
2 cartilage-knives.
1 pair shears, and 1 pair fine scissors.
1 draw-shave, adjustable handles.
2 skin-scrapers, of sizes.
3 gouges, of sizes.
3 chisels, of sizes.
1 screw-driver.
1 2-foot rule.
1 tape-measure, 12 feet.
1 thread- cutter, for iron.
1 thread-cutter, for brass.
0 pair pliers, of sizes.
3 pair cutting nippers.
4 pair forceps, of sizes.
1 hand vise.
1 hand drill.
2 monkey wrenches, of sizes.
1 ratchet brace, with bits and drills.
4 gimlet bits, of sizes.
1 hand-saw.
1 key-hole saw.
1 claw hammer.
1 tack hammer.
1 machinist's hammer.
1 hatchet, to lend.
1 sharp hatchet, to use.
1 cold chisel.
1 set stone-cutter's chisels.
1 punch.
1 tap wrench.
1 pair calipers.
1 set of hack saws, for iron and brass.
1 set iron fillers, of sizes.
1 set wooden fillers, of sizes.
1 set modelling tools.
1 set of files.
1 set of paint brushes.
1 set of brushes for hair and teeth.
1 glue-pot.
1 set of awls.
1 set of glover's needles, 3 sizes.
Best linen sewing twine, or "gilling
thread,'' of two or three sizes.
1 iron thimble.
1 spirit-lamp, or gas-stove.
Pails, kettles, cups, bowls, etc.
12 spools of Barbour's linen thread.
MATERIALS. — Excelsior ; hemp tow of two qualities, coarse and
fine, both of long fibre ; flax tow, such as upholsterers use ; cot-
ton batting ; oat straw ; potter's clay ; good glue ; plaster Paris ;
arsenical soap ; spirits of turpentine ; benzine ; salt by the bar-
rel ; ground alum by the hundredweight ; pine and hemlock
lumber, one to two inches thick ; 2 X 4 pine scantling ; an assort-
ment of annealed wire ; rods of Norway iron, from T3F inch to 1
inch ; nails, tacks, wrought-irou staples, screws, nuts, bolts,
THE LABORATORY AND ITS APPOINTMENTS. 101
wrapping1 twine ; rosettes for iron standards ; washers, all sizes ;
alcohol, shellac, white hard oil finish (varnish) ; muriatic acid,
sheet wax, sperm oil ; glass eyes, all sizes, kinds and colors :
unlimited pluck, patience, and perseverance.
If the worker intends to mount only birds and small mam-
mals, he will need but a very small portion of the tools and
materials enumerated above. But fie ! Where is the taxider-
mist worthy of the name who will admit that his resources ;nv
limited, or that he is not able and ready to " set up " any ani-
mal that may be brought to him, no matter how big or how bad
it is. Perish the thought that he is not able to cope with dog,
deer, or even elephant.
We now start on the supposition that you have acquired all
the tools and materials you are likely to need, and that our
subsequent work is not going- to halt or hang- fire on account of
the lack of this or that article.
CHAPTER XIII.
PRELIMINARY WORK IX MOUNTING MAMMALS.
RELAXING DKY SKINS. — Nearly all mammal skins that go from
one country to another are sent in a dry state, and it is a rare
exception to obtain a foreign skin in any other condition. It
therefore behooves the mammal taxidermist to become a thor-
ough expert in softening1 dry skins of all kinds and sizes, and
bringing them into mountable condition.
To relax a dry skin, rip it open, remove the filling material,
and immerse it in a weak but clean salt-and-alum bath (see
Chapter IV.) until it becomes soft, bo the time required three
days or three weeks. If you are in a great hurry, soak the skin
at first for a brief period in clear water, and if it is milk-warm,
so much the better. Sometimes a skin is so old and hard and
refractory that the bath of salt and alum seems to make no im-
pression upon it, in which case try clear water. In a few hours
it will yield and collapse, and then it must be put into the
bath, or the water will soon macerate it, and cause the hair to
slip off. You can leave the skin in the salt-and-alum bath as
long as you choose without endangering it in any way.
The inside of every dry skin usually has over it a hard, in-
elastic coating which, when once gotten rid of by shaving Gi-
st-raping, leaves the skin underneath measurably soft and elas-
tic, according to its kind. If the skin is a small one, or no
larger than that of a wolf, the best way to get it in working
order is to lay it flat upon the table, and go at it vigorously
with the skin-scraper (see Fig. 24). In this there must be no
half-way measures, no modesty, no shirking. Bear on hard,
dig away at the same spot with all your energy, first in one di-
rection, then crosswise, then diagonally. Scrape as if you were
scraping on a wager, and presently the skin will become so
PRELIMINARY WORK IN MOUNTING MAMMALS. 103
thinned down it will become quite soft, and even elastic. This
is hard work, it starts the perspiration and keeps it going1, but
it will conquer the hardest skin that ever was made.
To make a skin sufficiently elastic to mount, it must be
turned wrong1 side out and scraped all over thoroughly with a
skin-scraper, from nose to tip of tail, and phalanges. Small
skins yield far more readily and kindly than the larger ones.
The skins that are hardest, horniest, and most refractory ;in>
those of the capybara, all of the Sin'd<v (hogs), and tropical deer.
I have mounted skins of these that when first softened were
precisely like horn, — and at best with such subjects the result-
ing specimens are only " passable."
Sometimes when the scraper can make no impression, it be-
FIG. 24. — Skin-Scrapers, about onc-fourLh actual size.
comes necessary to laboriously pare down the inside of an en-
tire skin with the knife before scraping it. This is tedious,
1 nit effective, for a sharp knife leaves no room for argument.
All skins larger than a gray wolf, whether they be fresh or
dry, need to be stretched on a beam, and pared down with a
sharp draw-shave that has adjustable handles. This useful in-
strument can be bought at any large hardware store for $1.25.
Keep it thoroughly sharp. The beam should be about seven
feet in length, and six by thr;-" inches in size, and laid flat.
( )UH end of it is to be bolted firmly down to your bench by two
movable iron bolts, and the half which projects beyond the
edge of the table must have both of its upper edges rounded off
so that it will represent half a cylinder with the convexity up-
permost. The table itself must be fastened securely in plac •.-.
Throw the skin over the rounded end of this beam, drive a
stout " scratch-awl " through it, just beyond the reach of your
104 TAXIDERMY A1STD ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
firms, stretch and flatten the skin upon the beam, and with the
draw-shave carefully shave down the entire skin until it is thin
enough.
Be very careful at first, until your hands acquire skill, or you
will cut through the skin, which, in the case of an animal like a
hair seal means an unsightly, permanent defect. Do not be
afraid of paring a skin too thin so long as you stop at the roots
of the hair.
Of course you can not pare down the skin of the head and
feet with the draw-shave, and these must be treated with the
knife and scraper. The skin of the head of every mammal must
be pared down and scraped particularly thin all over, especially
the eyelids, lips, and nostrils, so that when these parts are
backed up with clay you can model them into exquisitely fine
form and expression. If you slight the skin of the head, good-
by to all expression ; you will merely be able to " stuff " it, and
that is all. If its features look coarse, uncouth, and wooden, it
will probably be because the thickness and inelasticity of the
skin defies your art.
Of course the joints of the feet must be got into working
order. The leg bones and skull require to be thoroughly
scraped and cleaned, and the skin itself worked up as nearly as
possible to the condition of a fresh subject.
CAKVING WOODEN SKULLS AND LEG BONES. — It is absolutely
essential that every mammal to be mounted should have a skull,
and all save the smallest should have leg bones also. If the
skull and leg bones that belong in a skin are missing, I inva-
riably carve others of the same size out of soft pine to replace
the lost members. These bones are imperatively necessary to
give shape and length to the various joints and angles of the
limbs, to shape the head, to give a foundation for the attachment
of wires, and to build upon generally. Very often the skull of
an animal is of such value to science that it must be kept out
of the skin at all hazards, and exhibited separately. Then it
must be duplicated in wood.
Every mammal taxidermist must learn how to carvs wooden
bones, and the quicker he becomes expert at it, the better.
Very few tools are required, and these are as follows : A small
hatchet, a pair of 8-inch calipers, a pair of 8-inch dividers,
PRELIMINARY WORK IN MOUNTING MAMMALS. 105
gouges of three sizes, I, \, and f inch ; chisels of about four sizes
between | and 1 inch, a draw-shave, a spoke-shave, a good sharp
pocket-knife, and the usual supply of boring tools.
To carve a wooden skull, proceed as follows : If you have not
the genuine skull to use as a pattern, you must procure one from
an animal of the same species, and ascertain its size in compar-
ison with what the wooden skull must be, e.g.; whether it be
larger or smaller. Then procure a piece of soft pine timber, free
from knots, and thick enough to turn out a skull of the proper
size. If this can not be found in one piece, glue together several
pieces of pine until they form a block of the proper size. On
the top of this block place your genuine skull, and trace its out-
line on the wood, making your outline larger or smaller, as it
may need to be, and bilaterally symmetrical. Now take your
hatchet and hew the two sides of the block down exactly to this
outline. This represents the " ground plan " of the skull.
To get the side elevation, sketch out on the side of this block
a side-view outline of the skull, and then hew down to that.
With your dividers, locate exactly the inner edge of the orbits,
and then mark out with a pencil the entire circle of each orbit.
With a gouge carve out the hollows neatly, and then with your
flat chisels attack the cranium, round off its angles, and so work
over the entire skull.
Measure frequently with the calipers to see that the dimen-
sions are correct. There is no need to go into any of the details
of the back part, or basi -occipital portion of the skull, nor with
any other details except those that lie on the surface. It is im-
portant to shape the orbits, zygomatic arch, the frontal bones,
the muzzle and lower jaw, quite accurately, for these bones bear
scarcely any flesh. In making skulls for apes and monkeys the
greatest care is necessary to produce the facial angle, orbits,
and muzzle, so sharply characteristic of the various families.
When a wooden skull is used, the mouth should always be
closed, unless it is very necessary to have it open. While it is
possible to take moulds from a real skull, arid cast a full set of
teeth in plaster or lead, or to set real teeth, or painted woodrn
imitations, into a wooden skull, the result is generally unsatis-
factory to a critical eye. When teeth are cast and painted, the
paint always changes color with age, causing the teeth to look
106 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
" made up." If you can not have a real skull with genuine
teeth in it, for whatever mammal you are mounting1, no one has
any right to require that it be mounted with open mouth, unless
the head is to go on a rug instead of a scientific specimen.
Observe the following precautions in making a skull :
1. Be sure that it has the proper facial angle.
2. Be sure that it is in no way too large. Better have it too
small than too large.
3. Be sure that there are no sharp corners upon it anywhere, lest
they come out next to the skin in mounting, and cause trouble.
When a skull is finished, bore a hole (or two in some cases)
through it from the occiput to the centre of the nose or mouth,
for the passage of the neck irons or wires that are to support
the head.
The principles involved in carving skulls apply equally to
carving leg bones, except in this work there is much to be done
with the draw-shave and spoke-shave. Of course they require
to be wired together at the joints, with two wires at each joint,
so that the space between them may be channelled out with a
gouge to receive the leg iron.
SEWING UP HOLES IN SKINS. — After thoroughly cleaning a skin,
take a glover's three-cornered needle of the proper size, and a
waxed thread from a ball of strong linen thread, or " gilliug
twine," and sew up all the holes that are to be found in the skin.
It requires some little ingenuity sometimes to know just how to
trim the edges of a hole so that it can be sewed up without puck-
ering the skin, but a little experimenting will soon reveal the way.
If you have to sew up a cut which has no hair to cover it, sew
tightly with a curve-pointed needle, starting the stitches on the
inside well back from the edge, and sewing only three-quarters
of the way through the skin. Draw the edges tightly together.
When the sewing is finished, place a flat bar of iron or wood
underneath the seam, and hammer it with a hammer all the way
along. This will flatten the ridge formed by the sewing, and
will render the seam afmost invisible.
In order to do fine work, a taxidermist must be quite expert
in the use of the needle and thread. In sewing up skins there
are two points to be aimed at, viz. :
1. To sew strongly.
PRELIMINARY WORK IX MOFNTIXO MAMMALS. 107
2. To sew so neatly that the seam will be as nearly invisible
as possible.
For general work one must also have common round needles,
and No. 30 thread for very fine sewing1, as, for instance, torn ey<>-
corners or lips, and holes in the face where the skin is very thin
and there is little hair, or none at all : three-cornered glover's
needles, Nos. 00, 1, 2, 3 ; and three sizes of strong linen sewing
twine. In the beginning of your work acquire the habit of
being particular about the size of the needle and thr-.'ad you use
upon a skin, and never let them be larger than necessary. When
special strength is needed, double the thread and wax it with
beeswax to prevent its rotting. Always sew with the ball stitch,
<:</., from the inside of the skin to the outside, every stitch. It
is often convenient to use a curved needle, and this can be made
by heating a glover's needle to a red heat in the flame of a spirit
lamp and curving it while hot.
How TO MAKE LONG NEEDLES. — In making manikins, and also
for other purposes, it is necessary to have a set of needles vary-
ing in length from six to eighteen inches, or even longer. You
can buy needles up to ten inches in length from anyone who
keeps upholsterers' supplies, but the longer ones you must make
for yourself. To do this, take a piece of No. 12 or 13 steel wire
and grind one end to a point. For the eye, heat the other en 1
red hot, flatten it with the hammer, then heat it again, lay it on
a bar of lead, and with a brad-awl and hammer punch an eye in.
it while hot.
NECK IKONS IN MOFNTING MAMMALS. — Never allow a neck iron
to come through the top of the skull, through the forehead, or
through the face anywhere. The neck iron, which must support
the entire weight of the head and neck, should pass through the
back of the skull and into the nasal cavity. Let the iron extend
some inches beyond the end of the nose until the neck is made,
and the head placed in position, for not until then can you tell
what length the neck iron should be. When the head is well-
nigh finished, take a small hack-saw and saw off the neck iron
close up to the nasal cavity, so far from the end of the nose that
by no possible chance can the animal shrink so much in drying
that the end of the iron will protrude through one of the nostrils
and into view.
CHAPTEE XIV.
PRINCIPLES OF UNIVERSAL APPLICATION IN MOUNTING
THE HIGHER VERTEBRATES.
GENERAL REMARKS. — We may assume that any one who is am-
bitious to excel in taxidermic work desires to do so by the high
character of his productions, and the recommendation they si-
lently give him. I am well convinced that any one who takes
the trouble to read this book will welcome the following prin-
ciples that apply very generally in mounting the higher verte-
brates, and are, at all events, intended to increase the average
of general excellence and permanency in mounted specimens.
A place in the front rank of taxidermists is not to be easily
won. It can only be accomplished by the studious methods of
the sculptor, the experience and observation of the field natural-
ist, and a combination of these with technical and mechanical
skill in the laboratory. The painter paints but one side of his
animal, and he is not hampered by bulk or measurements. The
sculptor blithely builds up his clay model, with neither skin,
bones, nor hair to vex his soul. The taxidermist must not only
equal the form of the sculptor's clay model, but he must also
make it to fit a certain skin with exactitude.
The ideal taxidermist must be a combination of modeller and
anatomist, naturalist, carpenter, blacksmith, and painter. He
must have the eye of an artist, the back of a hod-carrier, the
touch of a wood-chopper one day, and of an engraver the next.
With increased skill on the part of the workers has come in-
creased appreciation on the part of museum officials, and
higher salaries. Let me say to aspiring beginners, there is
plenty of room at the top, and money and glory to spare for
those who get there. But there is no royal road to fortune in
this business. Success means years of earnest work and study.
MOUNTING THE HIGHER VERTEBRATES. 109
With the understanding1, therefore, that we are aiming at
perfection, and that " a little knowledge is a dangerous thing-,"
we will endeavor to call attention to a few principles which
underlie all good work in taxidermy. At the same time I will
try to point out a few of the most common faults generally ob-
servable in mounted specimens.
PERMANENCY. — This is the foundation on which every speci-
men must be built in order to be first class. A preserved and
mounted animal that has not enough solidity and stability to
stand the test of time is unworthy of a place in any museum
or private residence, for its existence is sure to terminate
speedily in disappointment, disgust, and loss. During the last
eight years the National Museum and American Museum of
Natural History have thrown away and otherwise gotten rid of
enough stuffed specimens to stock a small museum, and all be-
cause of poor and unstable taxidermic work only twenty years
ago.
A taxidermist who knows his business can mount a specimen
to last ten years or ten hundred, just as he chooses. If you,
like a certain taxidermist I once knew, believe in " quantity not
quality," then you, like him, can use small and weak support-
ing irons (" they work so much easier than heavy ones ! "), half
clean your skins and skulls, ram a skin full of excelsior, straw,
paper, and rubbish from your dirt-box, sew it up with long
stitches and cheap twine, cram its eyes and nostrils with nasty
putty, and insert the cheapest eyes obtainable. Then, while
the specimen may look passably well during its first six
months, by the end of two years its sides will be a succession
of hills and hollows, its seams will be ripped and gaping wide
open, its nose will be shrivelled up and shapeless, its ears will
look like dry autumn leaves ; it will lean over helplessly to one
side, and will also have settled down upon its feet until they
are shapeless deformities.
This is no fancy picture, for it fairly represents the condi-
tion of many a buffalo, deer, and moose that I have been called
upon to either dismount, remount, or destroy. A dishonest
taxidermist may slight the interior work of a specimen and
have it escape detection for six months, or even a year, but
time soon tells the story. Dishonest or careless work, like
110 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
murder, will out. In a bird, it expresses itself in a look of
roughness, and a general falling away from grace at all points.
To secure perfect stability and permanence in a mounted
specimen, observe conscientiously the following principles in
its construction :
1. Pare every skin down thin, so that its shrinking power will
be reduced to a minimum. This will prevent its seams from
opening.
2. Poison with the utmost thoroughness, so that even though
the specimen should chance to stand unprotected for years
where insect pests are thickest, they can find nothing to feed
upon in its hair or feathers.
3. Use heavy supporting irons or wires, as heavy as tin;
specimen will accommodate without sacrificing the form and
position of legs and feet. The fault of using the lightest pos-
sible supports is entirely too common, and is so thoroughly
reprehensible in a taxidermist that it becomes a vice.
4. Make the mechanical structure of every specimen (e.g., tin-
fastening together of the body, limbs, head, neck, and tail), so
firm that the rigidity of all is complete. It is then, and only
then, in your power to place any member of the body in a de-
sirable attitude and have it remain fixed.
5. Every portion of the skin should rest upon a firm, smootli
surface of clay, excelsior, straw, or tow, according to circum-
stances. If there are lumps under the skin, they will appear
soon after it is dry, and destroy its smoothness. If there arc
hollows, the result will be the same.
6. The larger the specimen the thicker is the skin, and con-
sequently tho harder and more unyielding should be the mate-
rial it rests upon. Do not make a manikin with hoop iron and
burlap, and a little loose filling between that and the skin, for
specimens so mounted nearly always come to grief. If you
stuff a skin with straw, excelsior, or tow, pack the filling in
a solid mass, for with the lapse of time all such materials are
bound to shrink, no matter how hard you make them at first.
The shrinkage of straw is often remarkable and highly disas-
trous.
ATTITUDE. — On this subject no fixed rules can be offered. To
one fact, however, which should always be borne in mind by tho
MOUNTING THE HIGHER VERTEBRATES. Ill
preparator, I must call special attention, and that is as follows :
Animals of all kinds, even in a state of nature, and entirely of
their own volition, often assume attitudes that are highly un-
graceful, unpleasing to the eye, and anything but fairly repre-
sentative of the creature's form and habits. This being the case,
do not make the mistake of concluding that because you have
seen a particular animal assume a particular attitude, it is
" natural," and therefore you can do no better than to reproduce
that attitude in the specimen you are mounting. No, a thou-
sand times no. This mistake will lead to the reproduction of
many an ugly attitude, even though like life itself.
Every animal is capable of assuming scores of different atti-
tudes, and from all these you should choose the one which is rttoff
strikingly characteristic of the subject, most truly representative,
and which does the animal the same sort of justice that you
seek at the hands of the artist when you go to have your own
picture taken. On such occasions you do not lounge ungrace-
fully, nor "stand stoop-shouldered," nor look listless ; you stand
erect, at your full height, and look your very best. Make your
animal do the same.
For your own picture you do not assume a violent and tragic
attitude, nor anything strained. You stand or sit at. ease, quietly
but intently regarding something in particular ; or your attitude
may with equal propriety represent a moment of rest in the
course of some quiet action. Pose your mounted specimens ac-
cording to the same principles, and the results will be most satis-
factory to all. The choice of an attitude depends wholly upon
your artistic instincts, " upon your eye," so to speak. Choose
that one which is most graceful or grand, and is at the same
time truly characteristic of the siibject. To my mind, the atti-
tude taken by an animal when startled by visible or suspected
danger, is the one par excellence in which it appears at its best
when mounted. Under such conditions the animal always stands
fully erect, head aloft, and with every sense keenly on the alert.
The next best attitude is that which represents an animal
quietly walking or climbing, according to its habits and modes
of progression.
The subject of groups and grouping will be considered in full
later on in this work.
112 TAXIDEKMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
PROPORTIONS. — On this point a single observation will be suffi-
cient. The taxidermist often receives, from the zoological gar-
dens and menageries, specimens that are very thin in flesh. In
mounting an animal, do not let your knowledge of anatomy run
away with your judgment, art, and even nature itself, by pro-
ducing a tiger, panther, zebra, or buffalo with all its ribs show-
ing, and its scapulae, pelvis, and vertebral column all standing
out in bold relief. Unless the individuals of a given species are
always scrawny, I pray you, for the sake of truth and justice, do
not make your solitary representative of that species look like a
candidate for special honors at a bone-yard.
Let me assure you, on the honor of a hunter, that animals in
a state of nature are nearly always well fed and plump-looking,
and show very few bones. It is easy to make ribs on a clay-
covered manikin, but do not do it on a wild animal, unless you
deliberately intend to produce a starveling. According to its
nature, make every animal look well-fed and in good condition,
but not fat. It seldom happens that a wild animal in a state of
nature grows really fat, but it is still more seldom that one
looks under-fed and poor. If fatness is a special characteristic
of a species, then fat let it be, but scrawny never.
Above all things, avoid in your birds and quadrupeds the half-
filled body which makes the subject look as if it had been evis-
cerated. The abdomen is always convex, not concave.
THE USES OF CLAY AS A FILLING MATERIAL. — The value of clay
in the mounting of mammals, reptiles, and fishes can hardly be
overestimated. Previous to 1880 its use among the taxider-
mists of my acquaintance was unknown, and when its value was
discovered and put to general use by the writer, in the year
mentioned, many of my rivals predicted all manner of evil from
it. They declared it would destroy skins, go to dust within
them, become soft mud in damp weather, crack, etc. I per-
sisted in its use, disproving all evil prognostications, and now
its general use really marks a new era in American taxidermy.
By means of this common and cheap material it is not only
possible but easy to mount a horse, a seal, a hairless dog, a
turtle, snake, fish, or any other animal, with absolute accuracy
in every detail of form and size. Not only is this true, but, so
far as I can discover, there is no other material than clay with
MOUNTING THE HIGHER VERTEBRATES. 11.}
which these results can be accomplished. For covering- mani-
kins, coating1 the skulls of large animals, and for filling- in tho
nose, mouth, eyes, and ears, it is everything that could be de-
sired. With it a stretched skin,
" A world too wide for his shrunk shank,"
can be worked together 011 the clay-covered manikin, and re-
duced in size until it fits without the slightest visible wrinkle,
or any cutting out such as used to be necessary by the old
methods.
To prepare clay for use, take the clean, worked chunks of soft
potter's clay (which costs about two cents per pound, and
should be quite free from sand and grit), put tho 'right quan-
tity in a pail, and pour a little water upon it. AVith the
hands knead it until the water is taken up, and it becomes
as soft as dough. It will, of course, be quite sticky, and in
this state is altogether too soft to use except to cover a large
manikin, in which case it must be soft enough to spread easily
with the hand. For ordinary use, however, chop up finely,
with the hatchet, some clean hemp tow of long- fibre, and mix it
thoroughly with the clay, which can be done only with the
hand. This makes the clay more stiff, about like soft putty,
and of the proper consistency for filling- into feet, cheeks, eyes,
mouth, nose, etc. If the clay is too soft, you will have difficulty
in making- it retain the proper form under the skin. If it is too
stiff, it balls up, and you can not work it along- under the skin
from one part to another. When you learn to make it of just
the right consistency it works to perfection, no matter where
you put it, and will forever retain the form your fing-ers give it
by pressure from without. Elsewhere will be given more do-
tailed advice in regard to the various uses of clay.
COLORING. — The time was when American curators held it
sacrilege to paint the soft parts of birds, and the hairless por-
tions of certain mammals. For my part, I have always fought
that idea unconditionally, in season and out of season, and I am
glad to say that within the last eig-ht years it has been utterly
abandoned. Clearly, it is better to reproduce the colors of soft
parts as accurately as one can, rather than let them r .-main in a
8
114 TAXIDERMY A1STD ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
colorless, dry, and mummified condition, hideous to the eye and
meaningless to the understanding1. By all means let us color
everything1 that has color in life, though the heavens fall. As-
certain in some way what the color should be (this can often be
done by reference to books with colored plates), then paint ac-
cordingly. Paint with turpentine and oil, rather than with oil
alone, which leaves an unnatural gloss. You can tone down
any oil color, however, by stippling it with a stipple brush
dipped in a pan of dry color, or plaster Paris. The taxidermist
who can paint the exposed parts of his specimens accurately
and artistically has a very powerful advantage over all those
who can not. This subject will also receive special attention
elsewhere.
GENERAL FINISH. — In all work on specimens, cultivate a deli-
cate and artistic touch, and then leave its impress upon every-
thing you do. Do not leave a specimen looking as if a coal-
heaver had finished it. Work at it, and keep on working at it
until it is perfect ; and then go back to it the next day, and
work at it some more ! There is no inferno too deep or too hot
for a slovenly, slatternly taxidermist. The fault with such
workers usually lies not so much in their lack of .skill as in
their lack of patience and the dogged stick-to-itiveness that
conquers all difficulties, no matter whether they come singly,
in platoons, or by divisions. Delicacy is just as essential in
the production of good work as originality and strength.
CHAPTER XV.
MOUNTING SMALL MAMMALS.
IN attempting1 to give the beginner a fair start in the general
work of mounting small mammals of all sorts, from mice up to
small foxes, I will describe in detail the entire process of mount-
ing a typical specimen, which in this instance will be a squirrel.
This will embody all the general principles involved, and after
having laid this foundation we will proceed to consider excep-
tional cases, and describe the manner in which they must be met.
The exceptional cases are bats, rabbits, young animals of the
smaller species, and a few others.
We will assume that the subject before us is either a " dry
skin " which has been fully relaxed, scraped, and rendered per-
fectly pliable and elastic, or else " a fresh skin," i.e., one which
has been preserved in our antiseptic solution (the salt-and-aluni
bath) or possibly in alcohol, and has therefore never been dried.
For the sake of the beginner's courage, which should never be
taken out of him at the very first onset by putting him on a dry
skin of doubtful quality, we will take the skin of a fine, old,
gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) which lies in the bath wait-
ing to be immortalized — or something else.
It may easily happen that for good and sufficient reasons the
beginner has no salt-and-alum bath, and can not prepare one.
In that event the skin can be mounted immediately after it is
taken off the animal, only it is necessary to apply to it after the
arsenical soap, as directed hereafter, a copious quantity of pow-
dered alum. If you have no arsenical soap, then as you proceed
with the mounting moisten the inside of the skin with water,
and rub on powdered alum and arsenic, mixed in equal parts,
and be sure that the skin is everywhere coated with it eventu-
ally. This leaves the fur dry and clean, and will save you the
trouble of drying and dressing it.
116 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
Oil taking1 our squirrel skin from the bath to mount it we
find its texture is firm, and it is somewhat shrunken in size, so
that when it is filled out it will not stretch all out of proportion.
If either in haste or carelessness you have left a layer of flesh
upon the skin, pare it off until the inside of the skin is quite
clean. If any holes have been cut by bullets or knives, sew
them up from the inside with a strong linen thread and a No. 3
glover's needle — three-cornered.
Now for the wires. Measure the leg bones from the sole of
the foot to the end of the thigh-bone, add three inches for what
the wire must project beyond the sole of the foot, five inches
more at the other end, and cut a No. 15 annealed iron wire * of
the length thus obtained, for each hind leg-. The length of the
wires for the forelegs is obtained in the same way. Thus for
our squirrel, the wires for the hind legs must be fourteen
inches long-, and for the foreleg's twelve.
Cut another No. 15 wire twice the length from the back of the
head to the root of the tail, and this will be the body wire
eighteen inches long-. The tail wire must be smaller, No. 17,
long- enough to reach from the tip of the tail to the centre of
the body — seventeen inches. Straighten all these wires care-
fully, lay them together on the table, and remember the pur-
pose of each. If they are rusty, rub them with sand-paper. File
one end of the tail wire to a tapering- point, for the tip of our
squirrel's tail is very slender.
We are now ready to make one of the legs, and will begin
with one of the hind legs. Take one of the two longest wires,
pass one end of it through the slit in the skin at the bottom of
the foot, let it project three inches beyond the sole of the foot,
and up into the skin of the leg. Now bend the wjre until it fits
closely along- the under side of the leg bones as seen in the ac-
companying illustration.' Tie it firmly with linen thread to the
bones of the foot, to the tibia and the femur, as seen in the ac-
companying illustration.
Now take fine, clean tow, of good long fibre, and, beginning at
the foot, proceed to wrap it around the leg bones, smoothly and
evenly, to replace the muscles which have been cut away. The
* If you can not procure annealed wire, take hard iron wire, heat it to redness, and as
soon as it reaches that state remove it from the lire and allow it to cool slowly.
MOUNTING SMALL MAMMALS.
117
lower part of the leg- is flat on the inside and round on the out-
side, almost bare of flesh at the ankle. Remember always that
the flesh on the " calf " of the leg, and the forearm, lies behind
the bones, swell-
ing- out toward the
back and the in-
side of the limb,
and in front the
skin lies upon the
bone itself. Ob-
serve this, and
build up the mus-
cles accordingly.
The thigh is broad
and much flatten-
ed, rounded on the
outside only, as
you must have no-
ticed when you
skinned it aud cut
off the flesh, and
the knee - pan is
prominent. To
make the leg this
shape, first wind
some tow around
the thigh - bone,
then make up a
little roll of tow a
little larger than
y our forefinger,
place it along the under side of the thigh and wind it fast there
with tow. By a judicious continuation of this process, you can
make the thigh of the proper width and flatness both above and
below the bone. At no point is a squirrel's thigh more than
three-fourths of an inch thick, and the calf, the arm, and the
forearm are even less. By reference to the tracing made of
the animal in the flesh, you will be able to tell the width of
the legs at all points and correct your work all the way along.
Fia. 25. — Leg-making and Wiring.
118 TAXIDEEMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
In all thin-haired animals the tendon of the heel must be
made by drilling1 a hole through the end of the heel-bone, pass-
ing- a small wire through for half its length, then twisting the
wire together half-way up to the knee. Wind a little fine tow
around this wire, gradually increasing the quantity from the
heel upward until the false tendon is complete, and the upper
end is wound in with the tow which forms the lower part of the
thigh. In small mammals which have long, thick hair, as our
squirrel for example, it is not necessary to make the tendon, as
it does not show. Remember there is no flesh on the upper
part of the foot-bones, but considerable underneath.
It is not best to make the legs extremely hard, or they will be
difficult to bend, but at the same time the tow must not be put
on in a loose, slovenly manner. Avoid making the legs too
large ; the opposite extreme is the lesser evil of the two.
When the leg is finished, anoint the skin of that leg with ar-
ssnical soap, rub either a little wet clay or thick soap over the
tow leg so that it will slip into the skin easily, then turn the
skin up over it and adjust it from the foot up. If the leg does
not fit, turn the skin back and alter its shape until it does fit
perfectly. This done satisfactorily, insert a little clay or finely
chopped tow in the bottom of the foot, bend the wire so that it
leaves the foot at a right angle, sew up the cut, and you are
ready to proceed in like manner with the three remaining legs.
Be sure to make both legs of each pair precisely alike if you
wish to have a healthy-looking animal when finished.
Having made all the legs, the next thing is the tail. Take
some of your finest tow in your right hand, the tail wire in your
left, begin at the pointed end, and by turning the wire con-
stantly from left to right, let it wind up the tow which runs be-
tween your right thumb and finger. Make the tail of a regular
taper, perfectly smooth, and not too large. Try it in the skin
occasionally to insure accuracy. If the first one is a failure, dis-
card it and make another. When at last you have what is re-
quired, anoint the inside of the tail skin with arsenical soap, slip
the false tail into its place, and if the tail has been slit open,
sew it up neatly all the way along, commencing at the tip.
Now punch a small hole in the back of the skull a little above
the occipital opening, pass the end of the body wire through it,
MOUNTING SMALL MAMMALS.
119
force the end through into the nasal cavity and on out at the
end of the nose. Let the end of the wire also pass through one
of the nostrils of the skin for about two inches. Now put some
soft clay on the sides of the skull and jaw to replace the mus-
cles which have been cut away, and fill the orbits with the same
material. Anoint the skin of the head and neck with the ar-
senical soap, turn it back over the skull, and when the skull is
once more in its proper position in the skin, which can best be
determined by noticing whether the eye opening comes over
the centre of the orbit, drive a tack over each eye through the
skin and into the bone.
Another tack at the top of the head will also do good service
in holding the skull in its place while the grand struggle with
the body is going on, for the head is the last thing finished.
Life is too short and space too valuable to allow me to explain
fully why all these things must be done, but if you neglect any
of these simple directions you will very soon find out why they
were given.
The legs and tail are wired and made, the skull is in its place,
with one end of the body wire passing through it, and we are
now ready to wire all the parts of the animal together. The
skin lies on the clean table before
us, right side out, with the legs in
the same position as when we drew
the outline. Bend the inner ends
of the foreleg wires back from the
head of the humerus at an obtuse
angle, and let them cross each other
like the limbs of an X, as seen in
the accompanying figure. At the
point where they cross each other,
turn a little ring in the body wire,
six inches from the end, just large
enough for the two wires to pass
through easily. For this purpose
you will find a pair of round-nosed
pliers convenient. Pass the end of
each foreleg wire through the ring, and lot them cross again,
with the wire of the left leg underneath the other.
Fio. 2G.— Wiring Together.
120 TAXIDERMY AXD ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
Now refer to your outline, measure the distance between the
extremities of the toes, and it will tell you exactly how to adjust
the leg- wires so as to get the right distance between the two
ends of the humeri, or, in other words, the shoulders. The wire
between the head of the humerus and the ring1 represents the
scapula, and, if rightly measured, will enable us later on to pose
the foreleg's with ease and success.
Now, with the round-nosed pliers in the left hand, grasp the
three wires firmly at the ring, lay hold of the two leg wires with
the flat-nosed pliers and give two complete turns to the right,
twisting the wires together as tightly as possible. Bend up the
body wire to one of the leg wires, and, leaving out the other,
give these two a couple of turns. Take the other leg wire and
body wire and give them a twist. If the legs are now solidly to-
gether, it is enough, but if they are not, this twisting process
must be continued until they are perfectly firm. No looseness,
if you please.
This done, straighten out the body wire once more, arrange
the skin as before, according to your outlines, and you will soon
see that the ring for the hind legs must be turned about five
inches below the first one. The ends of the hind-leg wires are
bent slightly forward (toward the head) from the ends of the
femora, and also cross each other in the ring. After getting
the hind legs the right distance apart, give the wires two turns
as before, then bend the free end of the body wire straight up
and over until it points toward the head. Proceed with it pre-
cisely as with the other leg wires until the hind legs are im-
movably fixed on it. Now give the free ends of the wires each
a turn around the middle of the body wire and thus fasten
all together, forming a backbone of twisted iron wire.
The end of the tail wire must pass under the hind-leg wires
(as the skin lies on its back), and after giving a turn or two
around the wire backbone, tie it fast writh strong twine. The
tail must be as firmly fixed upon the body wire as though it
was soldered there. This done, wrap a goodly quantity of tow
tightly and smoothly around the wire backbone, so that the nu-
merous ends of wire, and the irregularities in the mass of
twisted wire, will not cause trouble when we come to fill the
body. Now that you no longer need to put your hands inside
MOUNTING SMALL MAMMALS.
121
FIG. 26a. — The Legs
Wired Together.
the skin, anoint it most thoroughly with the soap, from the
back of the head to the base of the tail. While the skin is ab-
sorbing1 the soap, take a hatchet and chop up
finely a quantity of coarse tow. With your
longest forceps, cover the inside of the skin
with a layer of cut tow, placing1 it between
the wires and the skin. It is highly impor-
tant to have a good thick cushion of it next to
the skin at the shoulders, hips, and along the
back.
This is the time to give the animal the at-
titude it is to have when finished. All the
members are now completely under control,
and we can give the animal any pose we wish.
Bend up each leg1 at a right angle to its pres-
ent position, making the bend abruptly at the
head of each femur, and thus leave between
them the same distance that separated thorn
when they joined the pelvis in life. Likewise
bend up the foreleg, by making nearly a right angle in the leg-
wire at the head of each humerus, and leave the proper space
between the shoulders. With the play that is given to the fore-
legs, by means of the distance left between the shoulder point
and the ring, we are able to adjust the forelegs with the great-
est freedom, to move each shoulder either up or down, and in-
crease or lessen the distance between them at will.
The most pert and characteristic attitude of a squirrel is sit-
ting up on its haunches, either on the alert, eating something
held in its paws, or, perhaps, washing its face with its paws.
This attitude is rather difficult to get, but it is well worth try-
ing1 for. Bend each hind leg- at the knee until the thigh
touches the calf and rests upon it. Bend the ankle-joint until
the foot makes an acute angle with the calf. Make a very de-
cided curve in the backbone, so as to throw the body well for-
ward between the knees, which must come nearly opposite the
centre of the body. Push the hind legs up into the body so
that the squirrel can sit upon his tail.
The elbows drop down until they almost touch the knees,
which is partly accomplished by curving the back. Just below
122 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
the shoulders the backbone must be curved, to throw the head
and shoulders up, and hold them well erect. Give the head the
pose you wish it to have, slightly turned to one side, let us
say.
The next step, a very important one, is filling- the body. If
you do not do it intelligently, your squirrel will need to find a
grave in the ash barrel. The mechanical part of this filling
process is exceedingly simple, and everything, or nearly every-
thing, depends upon how much you know of the anatomy of
the animal before you. This is a private matter between your-
self and nature. Your hand will nearly always be able to keep
up with your eye if you give it a fair chance.
With your long forceps, v/hich work like a dextrous thuml)
and finger eight inches long, pick up the chopped tow, and
little by little insert it in the skin where it is needed. First fill
out above the backbone until you get the desired outline, in
profile, of the back and shoulders from tail to head. Then fill
out the shoulders and form them properly. Fill in the neck,
first around the base of the skull, and sew up the neck skin,
from the end of the cut downward for about two inches, and
without cutting off your thread insert more chopped tow in the
neck and shoulders, packing it firmly, if you have the propor-
tions right. Do not allow the tow to roll up into wads and
make the skin full of hills and hollows on the outside. Tho
pressure of the tow 011 all points of the skin should be the
same, and the filling must be packed firmly and evenly, so that
the finished animal will keep its shape tenaciously in the strug-
gle for existence, and not collapse at a firm touch.
One secret of success in filling the body lies in gradually and
equally filling out the entire body to fair proportions before fin-
ishing any one part. Give the animal its exact attitude, thou
proceed. If there is an apparent lack of skin at any particular
point, attack that first, and fill it out. You will soon find how
easy it is to draw skin from one part of the body to another by
judicious filling.
Having finished the neck and shoulders, leave that part
and go to the haunches. Fill around the base of the tail,
the hips, the upper part of the thighs, and the abdomen.
Be careful to make both sides alike. Commence at the root of
MOUNTING SMALL MAMMALS. 123
the tail and sew up the opening1 for about two inches, without
catching1 the hair in your stitches, after which you may boiv
two small holes in a pine board, the proper distance apart, puss
the two hind leg1 wires through, and set the little animal up.
This is only a trial trip, and if you find the feet are not the
proper distance apart (or the squirrel does not walk properly,
if you have put him in a walking attitude), or does not sit
properly, take him off the board and remedy the defects.
AVheii you have corrected his attitude, proceed with the filling,
sewing up from both below and above, until the body is prop-
erly shaped, filled full of tow, and the opening- entirely sewn
up.
Now comb the tow out of the damp fur, and, if it is dirty,
wash it with washing- soda, soap and water until it is thor-
oughly clean. Place the animal upon its board pedestal, and
correct the attitude with the utmost care before you bend the
wires up underneath the board and clinch them fast. If the
specimen is even a moderate success thus far, we will go on
with it.
If the animal you are mounting is a tree-climber, and you
wish to mount it upon a tree limb, select one for the purpose,
and, according to your desire to have it nearly perpendicular,
slanting, or horizontal, saw it off at the lower end, plant it
firmly upon a rough board pedestal, and fasten it by putting-
two long, stout screws thrc-ugh the board and up into the base
of the branch. Put your specimen upon the branch as nearly
in position as possible, mark the places where the holes should
be bored, and bore them with a bit of the proper size. You
can then run the ends of the leg- wires throug-h, draw the feet
down closely, and clinch the wires on the opposite side.
As soon as the little animal is firmly fixed on his temporary
pedestal, or his branch, which must be permanent, we are ready
to give the final touches to the body. We will, with thumb
and finger, press in the shoulders if they are too high or wide,
flatten the body by pressure if it is too round on the sides, and
emphasize the undulating outline of the sides also by pressure.
If there is a hollow spot where the surface should be smooth,
thrust a sharp awl through the skin, catch some tow on the
point of the awl, and, with a sharp lifting motion, pull the fibre
124
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
up until it fills out the hollow. If there is a lump of tow under
the skin, making an unsightly hump, thrust the point of the
awl through into it, and spread it out underneath until the skin
lies flat. It is of-
ten necessary to
work all over the
body of an animal
with the awl in
this way.
We have now
to finish the head.
With the cutting
pliers, cut off the
end of the body
wire close up to
the skull, so that
the end will be
hidden. Adjust
the skin so that it
fits naturally and
easily on the skull
and around the
mouth, and see
that the eyes
come over the
centre of the or-
bits. If the clay
which was put
upon the slmll
does not fill out
the jaws and sides
of the head quite naturally, push in a little chopped tow until
the proper form is obtained.
Avoid getting one jaw fuller than the other ; it is only boys
arid men who chew tobacco who have cheeks that are not bilat-
erally symmetrical. Avoid getting one eye too far back, for-
ward, up or down, but match the one that is correctly placed.
Fill in the end of the nose, the lips, and the chin with clay,
fold the lips naturally and press them into place. If the skin
FIG. 27. — The Finished Specimen.
MOUNTING SMALL MAMMALS. 125
around the mouth is not unnaturally drawn back, the lips will
stay in place, and dry there without any fastening. If the skin
is drawn too far back, the lips must be pinned in place until
they dry. The advantage in using- clay for filling out the head
is that it enables you to press the skin down upon it and mould
all the parts into their natural- shape and size, without giving
to the head that unnatural, puffed out, stuffed appearance,
which is almost unavoidable when tow only is used.
Introduce clay at the eye opening until the addition of the
glass eye inside will make the organ sufficiently prominent.
Insert the glass eye edgewise through the opening, turn it in
position and embed it in the clay. With a large needle, or your
awl, adjust the eyelids upon the glass, and if the eye is not
right, work it into its proper position. Adjust both eyes alike,
and, above all, see to it that they both look at the same point,
be that point real or imaginary.
The same amount of iris must show in each eye, and the po-
sition of the pupils must correspond exactly. Do not make
them unusually staring, as though about to burst from their
sockets. It is the eye more than any other one feature that
gives any animal, living or stuffed, its expression, and this is
due entirely to the arrangement of the lid and brow. The eye-
ball has, in itself, no more power of varied expression than a
glass marble ; therefore the facial expression of a mounted ani-
mal is wholly under the control of the taxidermist, provided he
takes the trouble to procure good glass eyes of the right size
and quality.
Unless the ears of your specimen are very small and insig-
nificant, it will be necessary to cut two pieces of thin card-board
the shape of each ear, but larger, and after getting the ear in
position, pin it between them, so that it will be held in a natu-
ral position and good shape until it dries. Do not thrust the
pins through the ear, but through the card-board around the-
edge. The last thing is to arrange the toes and feet naturally,
and pin each toe in place until it dries. Since our squirrel is to
be holding a nut, we will cut off the foreleg wires, all but half
an inch, and bring the paws close together at the proper eleva-
tion. We must now drill two small holes in opposite sidrs
of a hickory nut, force the wires into them until the nut rests
126 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
nicely in the paws, and there let it remain. If necessary, we
will tie the toes in position around the nut until they are dry.
It is a common fault with beginners in taxidermy to slight
the toes of their specimens, both birds and mammals, and, as a
result, all such specimens have a slovenly, tramp-like appear-
ance.
Nature alone can tell you how to pose the tail to represent
the state of the animal's feeling's. Try to look at your work
with the eye of an artist, analyze it, and catalogue its faults, so
that you will be sure to avoid them in the next specimen.
If the hair needs no more washing1, comb it out carefully at
the last moment, and set your specimen on a shelf to dry, out
of the dust if possible, and out of the sunshine, and watch it
while it is drying to see that the head and feet dry in good
shape. At the end of two weeks, or perhaps three, the little
mammal will be dry and hard, and ready for the last touches.
Pull out all the pins which have been holding the toes, ears,
lips, or eye corners in place, and if they leave any holes, fill
them up with putty. I have not told you how to stuff a head
with the mouth open, and model the soft parts in papier-mache
and wax, because you will hardly want to try anything so diffi-
cult at present, and it involves processes which cannot be de-
scribed within the limits of this chapter.
When your mammal is quite dry, dress the fur with a fine
comb and brush, and beat it with a small piece of whalebone
or a little switch, to make it stand out from the skin, full and
fluffy, as in life. This end must be accomplished, no matter
how long it takes.
Procure some tube colors, oil and turpentine, equal parts,
and a small sable brush, with which to tint the eyelids and the
end of the nose their natural color. Put a little varnish and
turpentine, equal parts of each, on the toe-nails, and, in short,
do everything you can that will give the specimen the look of a
living animal. If it looks stuffed, put it in the darkest corner of
your cabinet, and try another. The glass eyes must be cleaned
with great care, and polished with a soft cotton rag until they
glisten.
At the last moment change the rough board pedestal for a
permanent one, either of black walnut, polished, or ash, planed
MOUNTIXCT SMALL MAMMALS. 127
and sand-papered very smooth, and covered with two coats of
shellac. If you have perched your squirrel on the top of a
small stump, sawed off square at the bottom, or upon a large
branch, with a section of the trunk serving as a base, of course
no artificial base is necessary. Artificial branches for mounted
birds are bad enough, but for mammals they are altogether too
bad, and should never be used.
In conclusion, do not expect that your first mammal is going
to be an overpowering success. Do not take a cat for your first
subject, for a cat is the most difficult of all small quadrupeds to
mount successfully. A tough old squirrel is the best thing for
you to wrestle with until you have learned the method thor-
oughly.
EXCEPTIONAL CASES. — There are certain classes of small mam-
mals whose skins should not be put through the salt and alum
bath, if possible to avoid it, for several reasons. These are the
young of the smaller mammalia, especially such as rabbits,
squirrels, and other familiar forms. It is by far the best plan
• to mount all such skins as soon as they are taken off, without
wetting the hair, and using dry arsenic and alum, equal parts.
to preserve and poison them. The bones of young animals be-
come quite soft in the bath, and the hair is difficult to dross to
look like life. The fur of a rabbit is the meanest fur in the
world to comb out and dress to look fluffy and immaculate after
it has once been wet with salt-and-alum water. Mount them
without wetting when you can, only poison fl/rm irdl against
moths. Alcohol is far preferable to the bath for the skins of
such species as the above, and, as our English cousins would
say, is " not half bad."
MOUXTTW BATS. — Having tried all known methods of mount-
ing and displaying these pestiferous little subjects, I finally
evolved an arrangement which I now conceitedly believe is the
only satisfactory solution of the difficulties they present. My
plan is to mount the bat without any wires, save in the legs of
the larger species, and when finished lay it on its back on a
smooth board, spread the wings, put pieces of pasteboard over
the membrane until all is covered, and pin them down. Of
courso the wings must be in perfect position. "When the speci-
men is dry, apply some royal glue of the best quality to the
128
TAXIDEftMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
^
/!»;'• ' I •••'•y/
W? f
J ME*1*!- .••/'
lAW/.
-
.;- •,•.*.,;? !!?•;
y -:• , ,
back of eacli wing1,
aud stick his bat-
ship permanently 011
a strip of thick plate
glass, which has been
prepared previously
by being cut to the
proper size, and
ground on the edges.
The accompany-
ing cut (Fig. 28) was
drawn from a speci-
men as exhibited,
omitting the label.
The advantages of
this arrangement are
as follows : It shows
the specimen per-
fectly on both sides ;
the wings do not
warp and shrivel
up ; it is possible to
repair breaks in the
wing membrane, and
the most delicate
specimen is well
protected. The strip
of glass stands on
edge in a deep
groove which has
been cut to fit it
tightly in the top of
a flat, narrow ped-
estal having the us-
ual moulded edge.
CHAPTER XVI.
MOUNTING LAEGE MAMMALS.— ORDINARY METHODS.
SECTION 1. LONG-HAIRED MAMMALS OF MEDIUM SIZE. — Exam-
j)les : Wolves, certain dogs, large apes, baboons and mon-
keys ; the smaller bears, hair seals, all long-haired quadrupeds
from the size of the fox to the Newfoundland dog ; also, all old
dry skins of mammals between the two sizes mentioned.
WHILE it will be advised in Section III. of this subject to
mount short-haired skins of the above sizes upon clay-covered
manikins, it is very often an impossibility to pursue this course
with a dry skin, no matter what its pelage may be like. Dry
skins more than one year old are usually so shrunken, hard, and
inelastic, that in circumference they are one or two sizes smaller
than life, and it is very often impossible to stretch them suffi-
ciently to make them fit over a manikin of the rig-lit size. The
only way in which enough power can be brought to bear upon
them to force them to stretch to their propyr size in neck and
body, is to fill them with straw, and ram it so hard that the
skin is forced to stretch. Even if you fill a shrunken body so
full that it will stretch no more, if you keep it thoroughly moist,
or even wet, in wet cloths, and return to the charge next day
with more straw and muscle, you will find that the skin yields
a good deal more, and perhaps reaches the right size without
further protest. Very often this is the only treatment that will
save an old, dry skin from becoming a total loss. In all such
cases/'/ ""f the worxf xhrunlrn parts first, to make sure of con-
quering them, and leave the less difficult portions to the last.
The chief differences between the method described in the
previous chapter for mounting small mammals, and that for the
subjects included in this section are simply these : (1.) The
9
130 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
larger animals require leg wires or irons that are too large to be
bent at will and twisted together. (2.) AY here rods are used, n
thread must be cut on the lower end of each to receive a nut
under the pedestal, because leg rods can not be fastened in any
other way. (3.) A stout wooden bar must be used in the body
for the leg, head, and tail wires, or irons, to run through, and
i:pon which all these can be stapled down firmly. (4.) For
various reasons, it is best that all these animals should be filled
Avith straw by the old process of stuffing.
To mount a specimen belonging in this section, proceed pre-
cisely as directed in the previous chapter, with wiring and
making each leg, except where the specimen is so large that it
requires rods for the legs instead of wires. It is only the
larger and heavier animals of this section, viz., the wolves,
large dogs, large kangaroos, anthropoid apes, and the like, that
require rods instead of wires. For your foxes, baboons, and
small kangaroos, you can use wires of the large sizes, of about
the same proportionate length as for your squirrel. In getting
out the rods for the legs of your large specimens, use Norway
iron, because it is toughest, and proceed as follows :
Decide upon the attitude of your specimen, then lay the bones
of each leg in its intended position on the table, take a straight
wire of large size (No. 9) and bend it to fit the back of the leg
bones, precisely where you wish your rod to go. Leave an end
about two and one-half inches long, projecting straiyht downward
from the centre of the foot, to go through the pedestal and re-
ceive a nut underneath. Cut a thread on this lower end, and fit a
hexagonal nut. For the hind legs, let the upper end of each rod
project beyond the upper end of the femur for a distance equal
to about two-thirds the length of that bone. The irons to sup-
port the head should be two in number, and should be long
enough to reach from the end of the nose to the centre of the
body. The tail iron will be regulated by circumstances.
THE HAND OF AN ANTHROPOID APE. — It nearly always happens
tha,t every skin of a large gorilla, chimpanzee, or orang utau is
totally destitute of bones. Now the hand of such an animal is
a very important feature. Do not attempt to make it with wires
and tow alone, for if you do, the fingers will be semicircles, re
sembling the half of an over-brown doughnut. Each joint must
MOUNTING LARGE MAMMALS.
131
show an angle, and each finger bcji'at on the inside. The accou:
panying cut (Fig. 29) shows how to make the hand of an an-
thropoid ape so that it shall be as natural as life. The wooden
bones give the proper angles at the joints, and the tow- wrapped
wire underneath gives the finger its proper breadth. When all
is ready, cover each finger manikin with clay, make the paint lu>i-
low and, flat, and let the end of the iron rod come out in the cen-
tre of the palm. This method gives a hand that is beyond criti-
cism. For hand and foot studies of apes and monkeys, see " The
Standard Natural History," vol. v., page 512.
FIG. 29.— Artificial Skeleton for Hand of an Orang Utan.
The following animals, when of adult size, require leg supports
of the following sizes: Large foxes, No. 8 wire; olive baboon.
No. 5 or 6 ; small kangaroo, No. 4 to 6 ; wolverine, No. G ; coyote,
i inch rod ; setter dog, £ inch ; peccary, £ inch ; great ant-eater. }
inch ; gray wolf, ^ inch ; giant kangaroo, {f inch for hind legs :
harp seal, f inch.
Having made the legs complete, lay the skin upon its back,
with the legs spread out, make the irons or wires cross each
other as shown in the accompanying figure (Plate VI.), and then
h< -w out a piece of tough wood of the general shape and pro-
portion as that shown in the cut. Let this be as small as prac-
ticable to avoid splitting when the irons are stapled down upon
it. Round off the corners and the ends, so that you can easily
132 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
work all around this wooden backbone, when filling- the animal,
Now lay this piece of wood in the skin, upon the crossed leg
irons, mark the points at which the irons need to pass through
it, and bore holes accordingly, slanting each hole through the
stick, for good reasons. The next step is to pass the irons
through these holes (by bending them a little, and straighten-
ing them afterward) and when all are through, adjust the legs so
that there is plenty of loose skin in the body, both in length and
breadth. Remember that the stick is to be in the centre of the
body, not the top. When the adjustment is complete, bend the
end of each iron sharply down upon the stick, and staple it
down with the utmost firmness.
Next pass one of your neck irons through the skull from back
to front, boring a hole at the back for the purpose, so as to
make the end of the iron pass out at the nasal cavity. Replace
the missing flesh of the skull with tow or excelsior, bound
down with thread, cover all with clay, poison the inside of the
head and neck skin with arsenical soap, insert the skull in the
head, and fasten the lower end of each neck iron firmly upon the
centre stick.
The tail must now be made, but it is wise to fasten the tail
iron so that it can be made to slip out or in, until it is known
precisely how long it shall be-, and then the end may be fas-
tened securely with staples. Now bend up the legs into posi-
tion, and give the animal its attitude. Procure your pedestal,
or limb of a tree, and place the animal in attitude upon it ;
mark where the iron supports are to pass through, bore the
necessary holes, and see if the animal will stand just as you
wish it to. If not, work at its legs, and bore new holes until it
does ; then take it off, poison the inside of the skin liberally
with strong arsenical soap, and proceed to stuff it with straw,
or chopped tow, or excelsior if you prefer that, but I never do.
For my own use I prefer soft straw, chopped fine.
Fill the neck first, using your wooden filler, then the body.
If the body threatens to be too small, fill that first. Before
going far, fill out the hind-quarters properly. Work on the
body all over at the same time, and do not finish one-half of the
animal before you have touched the other half, for this course
would get you into endless trouble.
MOUNTING LATCGE MAMMALS.
133
Having filled the body full, and shaped
it the best you can, and sewn it up at all
points save two, — a hole between the
forelegs and one under the tail, — now
piit it in final position on its pedestal,
and fasten it there. Having done this
and surveyed the scene, you wrill ob-
serve that the form of the animal is
very faulty, and the skin not nearly
full enough. Something more must be
done.
Unless the specimen is a seal, or some-
thing else with short, close hair, part
the hair carefully and make a long, per-
pendicular slit in the skin behind each
foreleg and in each flank, as shown in
Plate HI., I-I, and K-K. Through
these openings you can introduce your
metal filling tools, and also filling ma-
terials ad libitum, and give the interior
a complete overhauling. You can easily
push your iron filler through the straw,
and raise the line of the back, shoulders,
or hind-quarters, and lower the line of
the breast and abdomen until both are
right. Then, fill with more straw, or
tow, if you like now. Through those
holes you command the entire body of
the animal at every point, and now you
must work out your own salvation. When
all is finished and the body is quite full
and solid, sew up the openings care-
fully, and unite the hair over them so
that they will be hidden. If you are
careless in filling, and pull out a lot of
hair around each of the openings, so
much the worse for you.
For full instructions in regard to work
on heads, see a special chapter.
4
1-s
"8 o
3 •
+1 GO
IN O
& 13
•« "s
o
a
3
g
« x S
°^i
11!
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s * .
•§l5
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134 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
Cutting out Pieces of Skin. — It not infrequently happens that
in mounting' an old skin it will be found to have been unduly
stretched in drying1, and in spite of one's best efforts there
will be too much skin in a flank, or behind a shoulder, or that
the body itself will be entirely too large. In such cases, when
the animal is clothed with hair which can be made to hide the
seams, it is necessary and permissible to cut a long slit in the
skin where the looseness occurs, and cut out a strip so that
when the edges are brought tog-ether the wrinkle no longer ex-
ists. Usually such cuts are made in the shape of a triangle
running1 out to a very fine point, so that when the incision is
sewn up the entire adjacent surface will be quite smooth.
When a taxidermist has a fresh skin, or ono which has been
but recently prepared dry, it is very seldom that any skin-cut-
ting1 is necessary. With a good elastic skin, there are ways of
working1 away from any part a superabundance of skin, or forc-
ing the skin on parts adjacent to the wrinkles to contract suffi-
ciently to cause their disappearance.
On close-haired animals, wrinkles must be worked away, which
can in a majority of cases be accomplished by hard, persevering
work with the filler. With long-haired animals which have no
stripes or spots, and on which the hair can be made to hide all
seams, it is best to cut out triangular strips of skin. In the lat-
ter case it saves much time and hard labor. It certainly gives
a better specimen, and if such tricks leave 110 visible trace upon
the animal, where is the harm ? I care not if a skin be slit in
twenty places so long1 as the cuts are tightly sewn up, and are
invisible to the eye of the observer.
Bird skins must never be cut in this way, for to the ornitholo-
gist who diligently studies every specimen, the presence of
every feather and every bare spot naturally belonging to the
bird is of importance. Do not forget this caution, unless you
wish to call down upon your head the just wrath of the ornitho-
logist. Neither is it possible to do any skin-cutting upon rep-
tiles, for there is no natural covering to hide seams, and to cut
out any scales is to mutilate a specimen.
MOUNTING LAKGE MAMMALS. 135
SECTION II. MOUNTING LONG-HAIRED MAMMALS OF LARGE SIZK,
FOR WHICH THE MANIKIN is UNNECESSARY. — Examples : Musk
ox, bears (except large fwlars and grizzlies}, yak, Hadrian
camel in winter coat, llamas and their allies ; also old, dry
skins yenerally, which require forcible stretching.
WHILE the manikin process is the one par excellence for the
great majority of largo quadrupeds, it is also, until you get per-
fectly familiar with it, the longest. There are various large
animals whose long, thick, and matted hair so completely hides
the surface of the wearer that a shorter method of mounting can
be followed with Tory satisfactory results. This is simply stuf-
fing with straw in the same manner as described in detail in the
previous section, with but one exception — the manner of at-
taching the leg irons to the central beam of the body.
The leg irons are cut and fitted to the leg bones precisely as
shown in Plate TIL But the legs are made with the skin at-
tached at the foot, the skin is drawn over, fitted and sewn up,
and each leg is completely finished while the skin lies in a
heap upon the table. For a large animal this takes some time,
and as fast as the legs are finished each must be carefully
wrapped up in ice blankets that have been wot in salt-and-alum
water, and kept soft until all are done. Oil the threads on the
rods, to keep them from rusting.
The next step is to procure the centre board, which should be
about one-third as wide from top to bottom as the depth of the
animal's body. In the illustration showing the manikin of a
tiger (Plate TIL) the body board is wider than is desirable for
the same animal were the body to be filled with straw. If the
board is too wide, it is impossible to get around it with the
fillers, and work through tho specimen from one side to the
other.
To put the members of the body together, lay the skin upon
the floor on its back, in the same general shape as shown in
Plate TI. Put the body board in place and mark the points
where the ends of tlu> leg irons strike it. Xow for the iron
squares.
The old and antiquated way to fasten leg irons to a centre
136 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
board consisted in leaving- a long4 end projecting1, bending1 it like
the letter U, and stapling1 it to the board. That was always a
poor way, and in the light of a perfect arrangement it now
seems poorer than ever.
When Mr. John Martens came over from Hamburg1 to work as
a mammal taxidermist in Professor H. A. Ward's great Natural
Science Establishment, at Kochester, N. Y., the most valuable
luggage he broug-ht with him was the idea of the iron square
for attaching1 leg1 irons to a centre board. For that particular
purpose it would be hard to devise a more perfect arrangement,
and I shall be at some pains to describe it.
It requires four irons to fasten the legs to the centre board,
one for each leg, and to make a set for an animal the size of a
large mountain sheep ram, proceed as follows :
Procure four pieces of flat bar iron, £ of an inch thick, l£ or
1| inch wide, and 9 inches long. At a point 3| inches from
one end, bend each iron at a perfect right angle, which, of
course, can only be done by heating it. Now heat the short
arm red hot, clamp the end of it in a vise, and make a twist of
exactly a quarter of a turn in the short arm, as close up to the
angle as you can. This will make the end of the short arm
stand out in a horizontal plane against the side of the body
board.
At the end of the short arm, with its centre exactly 3 inches
from the inner face of the long arm, drill or punch a hole of the
right size to receive the threaded end of the leg iron, but no
larger. (For our Ovis montana ram it should be half an inch in
diameter.) File off the sharp corners of this end.
At a point about lj inch from the inner angle of the square,
and in the long arm, drill a hole about T\ or | an inch in dia-
meter, for a stout bolt to pass through. Between that and the
end of the long arm, drill (or
punch) two screw-holes, and
countersink them. That is all
there is to the making of the
square, and the accompanying
FIG. 31. — An Iron Square. ._.
cut (Fig. 31) accurately repre-
sents it. Each pair of squares is put on with a single square-
headed bolt, the length of which varies according to the thick-
MOUNTING LARGE MAMMALS. 137
ness of the body board. For our mountain ram, the bolts
should be § of an inch in diameter, and about 2| inches long1.
It is useless and unnecessary for me to attempt to describe
the different sizes of squares necessary for animals of various
sizes, for circumstances must be the instructor in that. I will
remark, however, that for a large bison or moose, where the
finished specimen wrill weigh perhaps GOO or 700 pounds, and
the strain on the irons is very considerable, I have found it nec-
essary to make squares of flat iron f or ^ of an inch thick by
If inch wide.
Caution. — Do not make the short, or outer arm, too long. If too
long1, and the hole once drilled, you will hardly be able to make
it shorter ; but if too short, it can easily be made longer by
putting a piece of board between the long1 arm of the square
and the body board. The length of the outer arm of the square
for the hind legs is gauged by the width of the pelvis. Tho
measurement to be taken is the distance between the centres of
the two femora when both are in their natural positions in the
skeleton, and with this distance once ascertained it is easy t< >
deduct the thickness of the centre board, and calculate how long-
each outer arm shall be. The distance between the heads of
the two humeri is practically the same as the distance between
the femora.
In making the hind leg, the iron should be no longer at the
upper end than the end of the femur, and once this is deter-
mined the upper end of the femur must be cut off with a saw,
to give room for the squares and two nuts. The end of the
iron for the front leg may project three inches or so above the
head of the humerus, and be bent slightly backward; to point
upward in the same direction as the scapula.
liemember that at first the squares of the two pairs are set on
exactly opposite each other, by means of the single bolt for
each pair. Insert the upper end of each leg iron, screw the
upper nut down firmly, then lift the half-made animal and
stand it on its legs. Being free to move, the legs are very
shaky, and you proceed at once to put them in position. You
now adjust the legs according to your original design, bore
holes in the rough pedestal for the lower ends of the rods to
pass through, and shift and change the different members, now
138 TAXIDERMY AXD ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
liere, now there, until you are satisfied that the legs are in pre-
cisely the right attitudes. If the leg that is stepping- out in
front is too short, run up the two nuts at the square, and thus
make the leg an inch or two longer. Those that are too long
are easily shortened by shifting their nuts lower down. You
have such absolute control over the legs that you can shift and
change them just as much as you please, and that very easily.
If the whole animal is coupled too short or too long, it is but
five minutes' Avork to take out a bolt, bore another hole, and
shift the forelegs farther forward or back. When everything
is perfectly to your liking, tighten up every nut to its very
tightest, and insert screws through the screw-holes that have
been provided in the long arm of each square. Each leg is
now a fixture.
The great beauty of this method, which appears to its great-
est perfection in the construction of a manikin, lies in the fact
that you have, from first to last, the most perfect control over
the different parts of the entire animal. When you discover as
you proceed that something is wrong, it is an easy matter to
change it, provided the skin has not been put on the manikin.
In putting together an animal with the legs in the skin, you
are necessarily troubled somewhat by the skin of the body,
which hinders the turning of your wrench, etc. ; but all such
difficulties exist only to be overcome.
Put the neck irons through the skull, and fasten the inner
end of each to the body board, as shown in the tiger manikin, or
in any other solid way you prefer. As to the tail, ditto, and
when the attitude is perfect, and all parts fastened together,
then, and not until then, anoint the inside of the skin with
arsenical soap, all that it will hold, and give it time to be ab-
sorbed. Put the head in position by bending the neck irons,
place the feet in position, and tighten the nuts under the ped-
estal. Now turn -the animal upside down, put a rope under
each end of the pedestal, and hang the whole affair up to the
ceiling, or to a beam, by moans of the ropes, so that it will
swing clear of the floor.
Next sew up the skin of the abdomen and breast, and proceed
to fill the neck, shoulders, and hind-quarters with soft straw.
Oat straw is the best, if you can get it. If you can procure no
MOUNTING LAIKJE MAMMALS. 139
soft straw, then have a boy take your wheat straw, Imnrh by
bunch, and with a mallet pound it upon a block to crush it and
make it soft. In filling1 the animal, the first thing to do is to
fill it out at all points, loosely at first, to get the general pro-
portions. The skin should not touch your iron squares or the
body board at any point, for if it does, something is wrong. At
first you will work with your large wooden fillers, but as tin-
straw gets packed, and the wooden tool will not go through it,
take your iron fillers. No matter how hard straw may be
packed, with a burrowing, twisting motion you can force that
wedge-pointed instrument through the straw so as to reach any
point that needs more filling1 out.
Be careful about the line of the back, and keep it exactly in
place, along the centre of the body, and always at the highest
point. Do not let the back line of a feline animal, especially a
tiger or a leopard, get down upon one side, as will be sure to
happen if you are not watchful. When the outline of the back
is fixed, then fill out the breast and abdomen, and g-et the lower
line of the body just as it should be. As you proceed with all
this, keep sewing up the skin from time to time until only two
holes remain, one at the breast and one between the hind legs
well back. Now take the animal down, stand it upon the floor,
cut slits in the sides, as directed in the previous section, and
through them finish the filling and shaping1 of the body.
All this takes work, hard work, intelligent work, and a great
deal of it. Make the body hard and firm, and as smooth on the
outside as Nature does. To secure smoothness, and to lower
the unnatural knobs that are sure to appear, beat the animal
from time to time with a. flat club. When all is done, fill in the
last bit of straw at the various holes, sew them up strongly but
neatly with stout linen twine, or " gilliug thread," well waxed,
and dress the fur. This will be treated elsewhere in a separate
section, as also will the treatment of the head.
CHAPTEK XVII.
MOUNTING LAEGE MAMMALS : THE CONSTEUCTION OF
MANIKINS.
SECTION III. SHORT-HAIRED OR HAIRLESS MAMMALS, AND OTHERS
or GREAT SIZE. — Examples : Lion, tiger, zebra, horse, giraffe,
bison and buffalo, camel, all deer and antelopes ; elephant,
rhinoceros, hippopotamus, tapir, etc.
OF tlie numerous processes described in this work there are
two which I must mention as being- distinctively and particu-
larly my own. One is the general use of clay as a filling1 material,
and the other is the evolution and development of the clay-
covered manikin, on the principles now to be described and il-
lustrated. Already this method of mounting quadrupeds has
been quite generally adopted by the new school of American
taxidermists, and I think it is destined to fill our museums with
more perfect mounted mammals than the rest of the world can
show. I have always willingly taught the advantages of the
clay-covered manikin, and the various processes involved in its
construction, to every enterprising taxidermist who desired to
learn it, and it was my intention to have published a full de-
scription of it years ago. Now it comes as a sort of "farewell
performance," and " positively the last appearance."
Among taxidermists, the term manikin is applied to the made-
up figure of an animal over which a skin is to be adjusted, and
made to counterfeit the actual form and size of a living animal.
While it is well adapted to the successful treatment of mammals,
reptiles, and fishes in general, it is impossible to employ it in
mounting bird skins unless they are very badly torn, and re-
quire to be put together a piece at a time, or else are of the very
largest size. The worst torn and mutilated bird skin can be
THE CONSTRUCTION OF MANIKINS. 141
put together on a manikin with perfect success, provided the
skin is all present.
Speaking1 from my own experience, I must say that my clay-
covered manikin process seems to possess important and undis-
puted advantages over all other methods I have ever seen em-
ployed or described for the mounting of not only the most diffi-
cult mammalian subjects, but also reptiles of many kinds, and
fishes. By it the most perfect results attainable by the taxi-
dermic art are not only possible, but may be achieved without
even a risk of failure save through lack of anatomical knowledge.
Nearly all the mechanical difficulties which beset the other
methods are eliminated, and the result becomes chiefly a ques-
tion of knowledge and artistic sense. By this method, I have
successfully mounted such mammals as the following : Ele-
phant,* American bison, polar bear, zebra, tiger, puma, elephant
seal, hairless Mexican dog, etc. The last-named specimen was
in competition against the elephant in a competitive exhibition,
and I learned afterward from the judges that it came near
wresting the grand prize from its lordly competitor. This fact
is mentioned to show that the process was equally successful in
the treatment of a thick-hided elephant and a small dog with a
skin as thin as writing-paper, and utterly destitute of hair. A
plaster cast of the unskiimed body of the dog was exhibited
with the mounted specimen, to enable the observer to judge of
the success of the process.
The unchallenged superiority of the clay-covered manikin
process is due to the following reasons :
1. The absolute control the operator is able to exercise over
the form of his subject from first to last, without prejudice to
the safety of the skin to be mounted.
2. The possibility of working out anatomical details which it
is useless to attempt by other methods.
3. The absolute permanency of the form produced.
4. The ability of the operator to place his subjects in atti-
tudes so difficult that by ordinary methods they would be un-
attainable.
* This specimen received the silver specialty medal awarded " for the best piece in
entire Exhibition," at the New York Exhibition of the Society of American Taxider-
mists, in 1883.
142 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
5. The most perfect preservation of the skin and its covering
from damage by excessive handling-, beating, and wetting.
6. The absolute perfection of form and attitude which is at-
tainable by this method only.
Until you have fully learned the principles of manikin mak-
ing, do not attempt to mount by this process a skin that has
come to you with no measurements nor leg bones. Choose for
your first attempt a good-sized dog or sheep, or some quadruped
of similar size which you have in the flesh, and from which you
can take a full series of outlines, measurements, casts, etc. I
can probably teach you as well as any living man how to pro-
ceed when you have no measurements whatever, and will give
you a few hints presently ; but now I say, you must have your
first subject in the flesh. It is then within your power to secure
to yourself all possible advantages in what you are about to do.
It is desirable to take the usual measurements before the
skin is removed, but by all means make another series of the
skinned body and limbs. In skinning, disjoint the leg bones at
the carpal joint,* which leaves only the bones of the foot at-
tached to the skin. When the skin is put on for the last time,
this joint must be re-articulated with two wires. When the skin
is out of the way, you can take the length of the body from the
back part of the thigh to the point of the shoulder ; the distance
between elbow and knee, from the elbow to the top of the shoul-
der ; the circumference and diameter of the body, neck, and
limbs, at various points ; the depth of the body, etc. You can
also measure from the highest point of the head of the femur
to a similar point on the humerus, and when the hind legs have
been cut off, you can easily determine the proper length for your
iron squares by measuring between the two hip sockets (os ino-
minata). Observe, now, if you never did before, that the front
edges of the tibia and the ulna have no flesh whatever upon
them, nor has the angle of the elbow, the knee-cap, nor the front
of the metacarpal bones.
Save the bones of each leg complete, and without any farther
disjointing ; but, of course, the flesh must be carefully trimmed
and scraped away. Save the skull, of course, and it will be a
great help if you will hastily " rough out " the bones of the en-
* At the hoof in the case of all hoofed animals.
THE CONSTIirCTIOX OF MANIKIN'S. 143
tire body and save them for reference: until the manikin is com-
plete. The pelvis and the thorax will help yon greatly by and
by. We will now assume that we are ready to proceed with
the manikin, which we will follow out by successive steps.
1. The first thing- to do is to cut a deep groove in the bones of
the heel, close alongside the base of the calcaneum, also in the
bones of the foot at the joints, and in the head of the humerus
from the back, so that the iron can fit in snugly, and not create
a great, awkward, rounded hump at each of those joints. In a
hoofed animal, the centre of the hoof must bo cut out so that
the iron can pass through it quite out of sight where it enters
the pedestal. The lower joints of the foreleg must be chan-
nelled out in the same way. Study the shape of each joint and
you will then see precisely what is needed. In cutting out
these grooves, I use a saw for certain bones, and gouges and
stone-mason's chisels for others, according to circumstances.
Kemember that between the tendon of Achilles and the lower
end of the tibia there is always a deep hollow, where the skin of
the two sides actually comes together. Keep your leg iron out
of that hollow at all hazards, — and this can be done only by
sinking the iron into the tibia.
2. If you have an outline of the animal's body, lay it upon
the floor, and draw a straight line to represent the top of your
pedestal. If you have no sketches, then you must draw an out-
line in chalk upon the floor, choosing a certain crack as the line
of the pedestal. Now lay down the skeleton of each leg in its
own place, in the position the leg is to have in the finished ani-
mal. Measure the height of the missing bones of the foot, and
leave a space accordingly above the top of your assumed pedes-
tal. It is highly important these leg bones should each have
the right attitude.
3. Take four straight No. G wires, and with the first leg laid
out carefully in position, bend the wire to fit the back of the
leg bones very exactly, cut it off the right length, and so make
an exact pattern for the leg rod. Remember to allow for its
going through a good thick pedestal, and having about two
inches to spare underneath for a nut and washer. The rod for
the foreleg may project above the upper end of the humerus
one-third to one-half the length of that bone, but the rod for
144
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
the hind leg must not be the least bit longer than the upper
end of the femur. Ilemember also to bury the iron well in the
centre of the lowest joint of the leg- and the foot, so that it will
not be seen when the animal is finished. In order to show the
bends that are necessary in the leg irons of a ruminant, I have
taken the trouble to photograph and reproduce herewith (Fig.
32) the identical leg irons which now support the huge bull
FIG. 32.— Leg Irons of an American Bison.
buffalo in the National Museum group, the manikin of which is
also shown in this chapter. Before bending, the irons for the
forelegs were each 4 feet \ inch in length, and those for the
hind legs were 4 feet 6| inches ; diameter, f inch.
4. Having made your four patterns exact in length and bend,
cut four leg irons to match, from round rods of Norway iron, or
best American, if Norway cannot be procured. I can give you
no fixed rule by which to determine the size that leg irons
should be, but I can at least mention the sizes I use in certain
animals :
THE CONSTRUCTION OF MANIKINS. 145
Adult moose, male or female, and giraffe, £ inch.
Bull bison, cow bison, horse, £ inch.
^lale caribou, black-tail deer, and large mountain sheep, |
inch.
Male Virginia deer, antelope, tiger, T\ inch.
All these sizes, except the two largest, can be bent cold in a
strong vise.
5. Having bent the irons to match the patterns, and to fit the
bones also, cut a long thread on each end of each rod, and fit
two large hexagonal nuts on each end so that they turn readily,
but not loosely.
6. With soft but strong twine, or annealed wire, bind each leg
iron firmly to the leg bones from top to bottom. You may now
take a saw and cut off the upper third of the femur.
7. During the course of the foregoing work, you have had a
blacksmith at work making your four iron squares (see previous
chapter) according to a hoop-iron pattern furnished by you,
and now they are ready to use in attaching the leg irons.
8. Now comes the question of a centre board for the body. If
the animal is a dog, a small deer or antelope, a tiger, or any-
f/iing so small that you can reach around its body icith your arms,
make the body board as narrow as you please, or as wide as
the entire depth of the animal's body, if you choose. I think it
better to make it similar in proportions to that shown in the
accompanying illustration (Plato VII.) of the first stage of a
tiger manikin, in order that with a long "needle one can sew
through the body from side to side. It is well, for the same
reason, to cut a hole in the board, as shown, at a point opposite
the iliac region. I mounted this tiger with a decided curve in
the middle of his body, which obliged me to cut the centreboard
in two, and uuito the two parts again at an angle by means
of two bent pieces of iron screwed on either side. In most ani-
mals, however, this is unnecessary. The centre board need not
be over 1 of an inch in thickness in any save very large animals,
when it is best to have it 1| inch, or nearly that. It is best to
use dry white pine, because it is light and works easily.
1). Lay the body board on your chalk outline, lay the iron legs
in position, put the squares down and mark the place where the
bolt for each pair should pass through. Bore the holes, bolt on
10
146 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
the squares quite firmly (but leave the screws out as yet), then
insert the leg rods, and tighten the nuts. Set the legs on
as nearly right as possible while the skeleton form lies on the
floor, then stand it up, put it on a rough pedestal, and sec how
it looks. Now comes the crucial test of your knowledge and
artistic sense. A number of things are wrong, and the shaky
skeleton of the manikin " don't look right."
What is the matter ? Is one of the front legs bent forward at
the carpal joint ? Then straighten it. Is the animal coupled
too short ? Then move one pair of legs a trifle on the centre
board, to increase the length of the body. Do not the legs walk
naturally ? Then make them. Are the forelegs, and hind legs
also, too close together ? Then your squares are too short, and
they must be lengthened by placing a bit of board under each
one, as seen under the hind-leg square of the tiger manikin.
You will probably iioed to shift the feet on the pedestal also,
by boring new holes. You can make any leg longer or shorter,
make the stride shorter or longer, and, in fact, make any
change that your eye, or your picture or cast tells you is neces-
sary. The vital necessity is that your eye must be so trained
and educated that it detects a fault instantly, no matter how
slight, and sees wrhat is required to remedy it. The eye of a
successful taxidermist must be educated just as thoroughly as
the hand of a pianist.
For a large animal, it is, for me, several hours' work to attach
the legs to the body board, and make the changes necessary to
bring everything into perfect position. The last thing is to
take the cleaned skin out of the bath, throw it over the skeleton
manikin, and see how it fits. If, when it is adjusted, the feet do
not touch the pedestal, you know that the manikin is too high,
and you must either cut down the top of the centre board with a
draw-shave, or else lower it by attaching the squares nearer the
top. In this trial the feet should stand loosely upon the floor.
Having got everything finally adjusted,' put the screws in the
squares, tighten up all nuts, and put a washer under each nut
that strikes the pedestal, both above and below, and make all
secure. There must be no looseness, or the manikin will lean
over immediately. The centre board should stand exactly per-
pendicular. Test it with a plumb-line, and see if it does so. Is
THE CONSTRUCTION OF MANIKINS. 147
the manikin now so secure that yon can sit upon it without
racking1 it ? If not, it should be. To test the manikin for my
big- buffalo, shown in this chapter, I climbed upon it, and stood
with my full weight, first on the outer end of one iron square,
then on another, and to test the strength of the neck irons I
put a large anvil on the top of the skull without making the
slightest permanent impression on the irons.
10. It is unnecessary to speak further of the irons for the
head and tail, and their attachment. See figures.
11. Next comes the making of the legs. The lower joints,
where there is scarcely any flesh, had best be made of clean,
long-fibre tow. Where the thick muscles lie, bunch up some
tow, put it where the muscle was, and bind on with thread or
twine. Continue this process until this muscle has been built
up to its proper size, and wrapped at all points until it is
smooth, firm, and properly shaped. Higher up, where the mus-
cles are thicker and lie in larger masses, use excelsior in pre-
cisely the same way. Little by little, but with much exce^ior
and twine, the muscles are gradually built up. Leave the bones
bare at the points where nature does. The hind leg must have
its tendon of Achilles before it can be finished. To make this,
drill a hole through the end of the calcaneum, or heel bone ; pass
a long wire through for half its length, twist the two halves
tightly together until they will reach half-way up the thigh, then
wrap tow around the twisted wrire from the heel bone up, making
the tendon larger as you proceed. Presently you are ready to
merge it into the flesh of the leg so that its upper end disappears.
To give form to a leg, and bring out the prominent muscles,
take a very long needle and a very long piece of twine, and sew
through and through the leg on certain lines, putting on press-
ure to produce certain depressions that exist between the
larger muscles. To give detailed directions on this point
would oblige me to go into the subject of rnusculation at great
;n id tiresome length, and since this is not a work on anatomy, I
will not attempt a dissertation on the form of each genera of
the mammalia. The illustrations of the tiger and bison mani-
kins show the form of the external muscles of Fclis tigrls and
Bison americanus, and what is possible in a manikin.
MAKING THE BODY or A MANIKIN. — The centre board of a large
148 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
mammal, like the bison, moose, and all such animals, should ac-
curately represent a section through the centre of the body
from top to bottom. In the absence of measurements and liv-
ing- models, the closest approximation to the desired form is ob-
tained by laying the skin upon the floor, hair inside, and folding
it loosely upon itself so as to get what looks like the general
shape of the animal, and then taking the outline thus obtained.
A very large manikin may be made hollow in the manner
represented in the accompanying plate (Plate IX.), which is
self-explanatory. This is often desirable to avoid making the
figure too heavy, as would be the case were the entire bulk to
be made a solid mass of excelsior. For the smaller buffaloes, I
made the bodies of excelsior alone. Each side was built up
separately by driving a row of nails along the top of the centre
board, and another along the bottom to carry the twine over in
binding 011 the layers of excelsior. At the last, these nails
were driven home.
During all this process the skin has been tried on the mani-
kin from time to time, to make sure that the structure is of the
right size in every respect. Beginners nearly always make a
manikin too large, especially in circumference.
It is the commonest trick in the world for legs and necks to
be made so large they have to be reduced. If a skin does not
fit when it is tried on, the manikin is generally to blame,
though sometimes the skin is badly shrunken, and requires to
be further thinned down to make it more elastic. It is easy
enough to make a manikin larger or higher, especially on the
hind quarters, even while the skin is being put on for the last
time ; but woe to him whose manikin is too large at the last mo-
ment. That means serious delay.
When the manikin is finished at every point, shear it all over
with a large pair of shears to clip off the ends of the wisps of ex-
celsior, and then poison the skin, thoroughly on the inside with
arsenical soap, and on the outside with arsenic water,' if the hair
be long. While the poison is being absorbed, mix up enough
clay to cover the entire animal with a coat an eighth or a quarter
of an inch thick, and smear it on with the hand. Have it soft
and pasty, so that it will rub into the excelsior, and catch hold
of it. If the clay is too stiff, it will neither spread nor stick.
$
H
EH
3
PH
§
c
£
THE CONSTRUCTION OF MANIKINS. 149
When the manikin has been fully covered with clay from end
of nose to tip of tail, not a single inch of surface having been
missed, you then have a complete clay statue of the animal, ex-
cept the feet. Now put the skin over and adjust it carefully.
Leave no air-bubbles under it. Catch it together between 'the
fore legs, hind legs, under the belly, the throat and neck, and
around the legs, and make it fit everywhere. Then begin at the
feet and sew it up with short, strong stitches in the manner
already described, shaping and filling out wherever necessary,
as you go. On a large mammal it is very desirable for two
persons to work at the same time, to keep the skin from drying
up prematurely. Of course, the skin must be kept wrapped up
in wet cloths until finished. Finish all the legs first, and then
the body. You can actually model the skin down upon the
body, and it will not only take the exact form of the manikin—
every depression and every elevation — but it will also keep it.
If there is too much skin on one side of the animal, work it to-
gether with your hand, and coax it to shrink until the superflu-
ous skin is distributed over the animal, and finally disappears.
Once, when mounting the skin of a Burchell's zebra in a pecul-
iar attitude (at bay), I found that, owing to its elasticity, there
was a superabundance of about ten inches of skin in front of
the left hind leg, which was placed very far forward, under the
body. But for the saving grace of a clay-covered manikin I
should have been in a fix. As it was, I started in half-way up
the neck, to work together and stow away the siirplus skin from
that point backward, and by the time I reached the seat of the
difficulty (at the flank) the surplus skin was all taken up, and
the side of the animal was as smooth and immaculate as if
nothing had happened.
There is supreme pleasure in crowning a well-made manikin
with a' handsome skin, and seeing a specimen take on perfect
form and permanent beauty as if by magic. If is then that you
begin to be proud of your work ; and finally you revel in it.
You say to yourself, "This is art!"— and so it is, — but let
your work speak for itself.
The head is the last thing to be finished, and this feature of
the work will be treated in detail in another chapter.
CHAPTEK XVin.
FINISHING MOUNTED MAMMALS.
DRYING AND SHRINKING. — After the actual mounting1 of a mam-
mal is finished, the specimen should be put aside in a separate
room, away from the dust, and allowed to stand for from three
or four weeks to three or four months, according to its size. It
must have time to dry thoroughly, and shrink as much as it
will. Every specimen is bound to shrink in drying, and it is
better for this to occur before it leaves the workroom, and be-
fore the finishing touches are put on, rather than after it goes
on exhibition, and is practically beyond your reach.
In shrinking, all the seams open, more or less ; the eyelids
draw away a trifle from the glass eye; usually the lips open
somewhat ; and in ruminants the inner skin of the ear often
draws straight across the inside.
CLEANING UP A SPECIMEN. — In finishing a specimen, the first
thing is to dig the clay and tow out of all open seams, cracks,
and small holes, preparatory to filling them with papier-mache.
With the sharp point of a pointed bone-scraper, dig out the
clayy or whatever filling material is in sight, very thoroughly,
so as to give the papier-mache a chance to enter deeply and
catch firmly underneath the edges of the skin. With a stiff
brush, brush out the seams and openings, so that no clay-dust
remains, for there is nothing so good as clay-dust to prevent
papier-mache from sticking to a skin. It is often well to use a
bellows in getting dirt out of holes and seams.
Beat the dust out of the hair, or blow it out with the hand
bellows, or brush it out, or wash it out if necessary, any way to
get it out. If the hair has been poisoned with arsenic water,
do as little to it as possible in getting out the accumulated
dust, for too vigorous treatment will bring out the arsenic with
the dust, and send it into your lungs.
FINISHING MOUNTED MAMMALS. l."Jl
If, however, the hair has not yet been poisoned, as soon as
the cleaning1 is finished lay the animal upon its buck, or on its
side, and pour into the hair, so that it will run immediately
down to the roots, a solution of alcohol, water, and corrosive
sublimate made as follows : If you wish to make four gallons of
the solution, take two gallons of ninetj^-nve per cent, alcohol,
dissolve in it all tli3 corrosive sublimate it will take up, mak-
ing what chemists call a " saturated solution." In this there
will always be a little of the sublimate left on the bottom of
the jar. This is, of course, too strong to use thus, under any
circumstances. Carefully pour off the clear liquid so as to
leave the sediment remaining in the jar, and then dilute the
former with an equal qaantity of water, which thus yields the
desired four gallons. It is most effectually applied by pouring
it from a small watering-pot, with the sprinkler off the spout,
into the hair, so that it will fill it and, cover the skin without
being wasted. The corrosive sublimate is deposited at the
roots of the hair, and also on the hair, in quantity sufficient to
prevent the ravages of insects, but not to be injurious to the
health of the taxidermist. Strong- arsenic water may be used
for this pupose, instead of the other solution, if preferred. In
case the solution used should leave a gray deposit on the hair,
it should be sponged off with a little warm water.
PAPIEII-MACHE.— How to Make and Use If. — Every taxidermist
must know how to make g-ood papier-mache before his educa-
tion can be considered complete. This material is absolutely
indispensable in taxidermic work, and its composition should
be thoroughly understood. It is used in filling up holes,
seams, and cracks, in modeling the mouth parts of specimens
that have been mounted with the mouth open, in restoring miss-
ing parts of various specimens, in modeling bones to go in
" restored " skeletons, etc. It is also of great value in model-
ing- groundwork to be made in imitation of rock or wood.
There is really no good substitute for this material. AYhen
properly made it sticks tightly to its place, is easily modeled,
can be crowded into the smallest crack, dries quickly when ex-
posed to the air, is hard and smooth when dry, takes paint
readily, and yet when kept wrapped in a wet cloth under an
inverted bowl can be kept soft for several days.
152 TAXIDKRMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
There are several ways of making papier-mache, according to
the use to which it is to be put. I have taken pains to prepare
an exact formula for making the finest and best quality, and
from that the worker will undoubtedly be able to work out vari-
ations in quality, according to his needs.
The most important ingredient is the paper pulp. The
iinsst pulp for papier-mache is that made by the ton in the
Bureau of Engraving and Printing in Washington, from muti-
lated paper currency, but not from tobacco stamps, which is
coarse and not fit for fine work. A hundred pounds of this
pulp would cost, in Washington, about $1.50, and could be
made into sheets of small bulk, and dried for use as needed.
It is a great advantage to have it in this form. When needed
for use, take a dry sheet or ball of the right size, dissolve and
beat it up into a thin mush in a bowl of water, until the parti-
cles are all well separated, then pour it on a sieve to run the
water out without losing the pulp. The water is then squeezed
out of it by gentle pressure with the hand, but it should not, by
any means, be squeezed as dry as possible, for the water is an
important factor. Pulp prepared thus can be stirred up with
glue into a perfectly homogeneous paste, free from all lumps,
and so fine it can be pressed into the smallest crack.
If you have no manufactured pulp, then you must make it
yourself. Procure a lot of old newspapers, of as soft paper as
possible, tear them to bits, put the pieces in a kettle of boiling
water and beat the mass in any way you please, boiling it
meanwhile, until it becomes paper pulp. It should be free
from lumps and small pieces of paper, or it will not work well.
The following are the ingredients necessary to make a lump
of papier-mache a little larger than an ordinary base-ball, and
weighing 17 ounces.
PINE PAPIER-MACHE.
Wet paper pulp, j dry Pa?er' l ounce \ 4 ounces (avoirdupois).
( water, 3 ounces '
Dry plaster Paris, .... 8 ounces
Hot glue, . . . . % gill, or 4>^ tablespoonf uls.
While the paper pulp is being prepared, melt some best
Irish glue in the glue-pot, and make it of the same thickness
and general consistency as that used by cabinet-makers. Meas-
'
',
k ' ''
.,
2
-
f-
a
o
GO
3
-
2
a
-
g
X
g
7
FINISHING MOUNTED MAMMALS. 153
ure the different ingredients to be used, until the result teaches
you what good papier-mache is like, and after that you can be
guided by your judgment as you proceed. On taking the
paper pulp from the water, give it a gentle squeeze, but by no
means squeeze it as dry as you can. Now put it in a bowl, put
over it about three tablespoonfuls of your hot glue, and stir the
mass up into a soft and very sticky paste. Next add your
plaster Paris, and mix it thoroughly. By the time you have
used about three ounces of the plaster, the mass is so dry and
thick you can hardly work it. Now add the remainder of your
glue, work it up again until it becomes sticky once more, then
add the remainder of your plaster. Squeeze it vigorously
through your fingers to thoroughly mix the mass, and work it
until it is free from lumps, is finely kneaded, and is sticky
enough to stick fast to the surface of a planed board when you
rub a bit on it by firm pressure of the finger. If it is too dry to
stick fast, add a few drops of either glue or water, it makes lit-
tle difference which, and work it up again. "When the paper
pulp is poor, and the mache is inclined to be lumpy, lay the
mass upon a smooth board, take a hammer and pound it hard
to grind it up fine.
If the papier-mache is not sticky enough to stick fast to what-
ever a bit of it is rubbed upon, it is a failure, and requires
more glue. In using it the mass should be kept in a lump, and
used as soon as possible after it is made. Keep the surface of
the lump moist by means of a wet cloth laid over it, for if you
do not, the surface will dry rapidly. If you wish to keep it
over night, or longer, wrap it up in several thicknesses of wet
cotton cloth, and put it under an inverted bowl. If it should
by accident or delay become a trifle too stiff to work well, add a
few drops of water to the mass, pound it with the hammer, and
work it over again. If you wish to keep a lump for a week, to
use daily, add a few drops of glycerine when you make it, so
that it will dry more slowly.
The papier-mache made when the above formula was prepared
had the following qualities : "When tested by rubbing between
the thumb and finger, it was sticky and covered the thuml > witli
a thin coating. (Had it left the thuml) clean, it would have
been because it contained too much water.) "NVhen rubbed upon
154 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
a pane of glass, it stuck tightly and dried hard in three hours,
without cracking, and could only be removed with a knife.
When spread in a layer, as thin as writing-paper, it dried in half
an hour. A mass actually used dried hard enough to coat with
wax in eighteen hours, and, without cracking, became as hard as
wood; yet a similar quantity wrapped in a wet cloth and placed
under an inverted bowl kept soft and fit for use for au entire
week.
Such are the qualities of first-class papier-mache, and the
manner of producing them all. I have dwelt at great length on
this material because it is such an important and indispensable
factor in general taxidermic work. It will pay any taxidermist
to become an expert in making it and using it, and a little later,
when we get to modeling intricate mouth parts, and making all
sorts of restorations and repairs, we shall see what a valuable
servant is papier-mache.
"MACHEING" MOUNTED MAMMALS. — Surely it is unnecessary
for me to devote much space to directing how to fill up with
papier-mache the holes, seams, and cracks in a mounted mam-
mal. Of course all cavities opened by shrinkage or accident
must be filled up. Use a sharp-pointed knife, press the fine and
soft mache deeply into every opening, make it catch underneath
the skin, so that when dry it cannot flake off, or be knocked off;
and smooth it on the outside to the level of the skin. Use the
mache liberally, and it will be more certain always to remain
as you leave it. Fill up rough seams until they are smooth, so
that the hair can be glued on if necessary. Wherever dry clay
shows, dig it out and replace with the other more durable ma-
terial, which can be painted, whereas dry clay can not.
PUTTY. — In the days of my youth I was taught by my Euro-
pean teachers to use putty for all such work as that described
above ; but I very soon became disgusted with it, and years ago
ceased to use it for any purpose whatever. It is greasy, inert,
and yet purely temporary stuff. It never gets really hard un-
less used in a great mass, and when used in small quantities for
fine work it is utterly worthless. Do not use it unless you are so
situated that you are positively unable to make papier-mache—
and I cannot imagine any such situation as being possible with-
in the pale of civilization.
FINISHING MOUNTED MAMMALS. 155
PAINTING ON PAPIEK-MACHE. — Of course this material dries
white, and must be painted. If paint is put directly upon it,
the oil and color is absorbed at once, and it takes many coats to
properly fill it up. To save time and give the best results, first
give your papier-mache work two coats of shellac, which dries
in a few minutes and fills up all the pores, so that your paint will
stay as you put it on. Use oil colors, but put them on with
turpentine to avoid the unnatural gloss that oil will give. In
another chapter (XXVI.) will be found detailed hints in regard
to painting mounted specimens.
GLUING HAIR UPON MAMMALS. — It is very seldom that a dry
skin is mounted without there being upon it some spot or spots
destitute of hair, which must be repaired. Sometimes it is
only a small spot, sometimes it is nearly the entire head, or an
entire leg from which the epidermis has come loose, carrying
the hair with it, and leaving an unsightly bare spot. It re-
quires a good deal of ingenuity, much skill, and tireless pa-
tience to glue hair upon an animal so that it will so closely
resemble the natural growth that no one will notice the differ-
ence. But in every case, except some of the seals and sea-lions,
this can be accomplished, if it be necessary, although very often
it requires good judgment and the hand of an artist to do it.
Each mammal has its own peculiarities in regard to the
quality, thickness, length, and general set of its hair, all of
which must be carefully studied. When the hair grows long
and thickly, the task is much easier than if it be thin or short.
1st. Procure a pair of very small curve-pointed forceps, so
fine they will hold a single hair if necessary. (Price, 75 cents.)
2d. Procure a pair of small and sharp scissors, with sharp
points.
3d. Procure a bottle of common fish-glue, or royal glue.
4th. If possible, procure a piece of useless skin, from which
to cut the hair necessary to use in making the repairs.
Very often it is impossible to procure any pieces of skin
with hair suitable for the purpose, and then the only way is to
cut hair from the specimen which is to be repaired, picking out
with the forceps a tiny bunch here and there in such a way that
the bunches cut out will not show. This can nearly always be
done in making slight repairs upon thick-haired animals, such
150 TAXIDEUMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
as bears, wolves, monkeys, etc. But with such short-haired
animals as the tiger, zebra, and giraffe, the hair must be pro-
cured elsewhere. Use the hair of any animal to repair the coat
of another, so long as it will answer perfectly, no matter what
the genus or species may be. Use tow, or jute, painted or
dyed the proper color, if it is sufficiently like the hair which
will surround it.
In order to treat this subject intelligibly, we will undertake
to separate all terrestrial mammals into three classes, as fol-
lows :
1st. Animals luith very close, short hair ; as the tiger, zebra, horse,
and giraffe.
Upon such animals as the above, the hair lies almost flat
upon the skin, completely covering it with a very smooth,
glossy coat. To repair hair upon such animals, procure pieces
of skin having hair of the requisite quality, and soak them in
clear water until decomposition sets in, and the hair easily
comes out by the roots. The hair must not be cut off, or it will
not answer. Be sure that your fish-glue is good and strong,
and about as thick as castor-oil. Clean the bare surface of the
skin by scraping it with a knife to remove all dirt, and give the
glue a chance to take hold. With your small forceps, pull from
the pieces of half-macerated skin a small bunch of hair of the
proper tint, and with a small camel's-hair brush apply a drop
of glue to the roots of the hair. Begin at the side of the bare
spot where the hair grows directly away from it, and lay down
your little bunch of hairs so that their tips shall fairly cover
the roots of those nearest the edge. Then press down the
bunch of hair thus placed in position, work the hairs slightly
apart, and make them lie quite flat upon the skin. Follow up
this process with untiring patience, and the result will be en-
tirely satisfactory. I have seen large patches of hair glued
upon a tiger so successfully that when finished the sharpest
eye could not detect the repaired spots. But it was very slow
work, requiring an hour's steady work to cover a spot of not
quite two square inches.
2d. Animals witli thick, long hair; as most monkeys, bears,
wolves, all the ruminants of cold climates, etc.
In repairing the coats of such as the above, the necessary
w
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FINISHING MOUNTED MAMMALS. 157
hair may be cut off in bunches, either from the animal itself, or
from old pieces of skin, so long" as the hair is of the proper
length. Notice carefully the set of the hair, and imitate it very
exactly. The glue may be applied quite plentifully to the
roots of each bunch of hairs while you hold it in your forceps,
and usually quite a large bunch may be set on at a time, and
afterward spread out a little. In repairing the mountain sheep
(Ovis montana) and prong-horn antelope (Antilocapra <nin'i-'n-<>
mi}, the point of vital importance is to get every hair to set in
precisely the right direction, so that the surface will be smooth.
If the hair is put on carelessly, and without due observance1 »».'
the above caution, upon the repaired spot it will stick stilily
out like the bristles of 'a shoe-brush, and the imperfection of
the coat will be painfully apparent.
3d. Animals with lony /«>/r growing very thinly ; as upon certain.
/•nrlions of orang utans, chimpanzees, and all members of the /<»</
family.
Upon the animals indicated above, it will be found that the
hair grows in little bunches of three or four hairs in a bunch,
but so thinly distributed that the skin shows through quite
distinctly.
Furthermore, in such cases the hairs stand out from the skin,
and their roots are plainly visible. Successfully to repair such
a skin is very slowT, tedious work, and cannot be done by a man
whose time is very valuable. A boy working for small wages is
the best means to employ, but he must be watched closely.
Procure the hair necessary for making the repairs. Then
with a sharp awl, or coarse needle, prick the skin full of holes
to correspond in number and distribution with the arrange -
ment of the tiny hair bunches upon the skin surrounding the
spot. Prick the little holes rather deeply and slanting in the
right direction. Then take a bunch of three or four hairs in
your smallest forceps, dip the end in the fish-glue, and keeping
the hairs well together, set the bunch into one of the little
holes. See that the hairs stand out in the right direction, and
proceed in this way until the bare spot is covered.
CHAPTEE XIX.
MOUNTING MAMMAL HEADS AS TKOPHIES AND ORNAMENTS.
SPORTSMEN, if you really must kill all the large mammalia from
off the face of the earth, do at least preserve the heads that are
brought low by your skill and prowess. Now that our elk,
moose, deer, caribou, antelope, mountain sheep, and mountain
goat are all disappearing so rapidly, and nearly all these spe-
cies are doomed to speedy extermination, head collecting has
become quite the fashion. There are in this country probably
two score of taxidermists who live by heads alone ; and many
hunters who once lived by buffalo robes and beaver pelts now
make a business of hunting for heads to sell. I know many
such, and their scale of prices for heads, according to size and
" points," shows that they have got the business " down fine."
And why should not heads be collected and made much of, as
well as pelts and meat ? A naturally handsome mammal head
which has been skilfully mounted is a thing of beauty and a
joy forever. Wearied with the survey of inane and meaningless
pictures, stiff portraits, cheap statuettes, and tawdry fancy deco-
rations, the eye rests gladly and gratefully upon a fine head 011
a handsome shield, hanging in a good light, and blesses the
hand that placed it there. Such an ornament calls forth end-
less admiration and query, even from those who know no other
chase than that of the mighty dollar, and who, alas ! have never
found out by experience that
" There is a pleasure in the pathless woods."
And therefore I say, if you must go and kill things, save their
heads and mount them as an atonement for your deeds of blood.
They will give pleasure to you and your friends long after you
have hung up your rifle forever. I have gathered numerous
MOUXTIISTG MAMMAL HEADS.
curiosities and works of art in foreign lands, but they do not
excite one-half the admiration that is called forth by the series
of really fine heads of buffalo, deer, mountain sheep, elk, ante-
lope, and mountain goat of which I am the fortunate possessor.
Inasmuch as this chapter is intended chiefly for the benefit of
sportsmen and amateur taxidermists, we must begin at the be-
ginning, and treat the subject in somewhat full detail. We will
consider that we have a deer as our subject.
Many a fine deer head is spoiled forever by being cut off too
close behind the ears. With such animals as the lion, tiger,
leopard, puma, and bear, a long neck is not desirable unless the
head is to be mounted in a glass case, looking out of a thick; •' :
and neither is it best for a buffalo head to have a long neck. It
may be set down as a safe rule, however, that the heads of all
deer, antelopes, sheep, goats, and the like, should have moder-
ately long necks. Having experimented fully with necks of all
lengths, I find that the most satisfactory to competent critics,
and therefore the handsomest, are those which strike a happy
medium, such as the antelope head shown in Plate XI. To
secure this length, the head should be cut off well back toward
the shoulders, so as to leave a little surplus to be trimmed off
when the head is mounted.
To Skin and Preserve a Deer Head, proceed as follows :
1. Start at the back of the neck (on top) just in front of the
shoulders, or "withers," keep the point of the knife under the
skin, with the edge up, and divide the skin in a circle all the
way around the neck, keeping down to the point where the neck
sets on the shoulders. You need not cut through the flesh and
bone of the neck at that point.
2. Never slit the skin open along the under side of the throat.
Cut it open in a straight line along the back of the neck, all the
way along, up to a point midway between the ears. From that
point run two cuts like the arms of a Y, one to the base of each
antler or horn, as seen in Fig. 7. Run the point of the knife
dose around the base of each antler, and cut through the skin all
the way.
3. Begin at the back of the neck, and skin downward on each
side until the entire neck is free. As you proceed you will pres-
ently come to the ear, which stands up like a tree-trunk covered
160 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
with bark. Cut the ear off close to the skull, leave it for the
present just as it is, and go right on down toward the cheeks and
throat, as far as you can go.
4. Begin next at the angle of the Y, on the top of the head,
and skin down between the antlers and over the forehead until
you reach the eye. Now proceed carefully. In many ruminants
there is a deep cavity in the bone directly in front of the ante-
rior corner of the eye, called an " eye-pit." The skin lines this
eye-pit quite down to the bottom. Do not cut through the skin,
but get down to the very bottom of tho eye-pit, and detach the
skin from the bone.
5. Be careful not to cut the corners of the eye, or the edge of
the eyelid. Keep close to the bony orbit, and insert the end of
one finger in the eye from the outside, to cut against when you
sever the thin membrane that surrounds the eyeball.
6. The nostrils must be cut through so far back from the
end of the nose that the cut will not be visible in the open nos-
tril when viewed from in front. The cartilaginous septum that
divides the nostrils like a partition wall must be split in two,
edgewise, from inside, clear down to the very tip of the nose, so
that all the flesh can be cut away. Many a fine head is spoiled
by having the flesh left in the end of the nose. It seems all
right for a short time, but when it dries, it shrinks and shrivels
up, and the nose not only loses all character and beauty, but
becomes an eye-sore.
7. The lips must be cut from the jaw close to the bone, and
afterward slit open along the inside, laid out flat, and the flesh
pared off carefully with a sharp knife. Leave one-half to three-
quarters of an inch .of the inner skin of the lip all the way
around, so that the form of the lip can be presently reproduced
by replacing1 the flesh with clay.
8. A deer's ear consists of a big, leaf -shaped piece of cartilage,
thick at the base and centre, very thin at the edges and the
upper end, and rolled together on itself at the base to form a
half cone, like a funnel with one side partly cut away. Over
this sheet of cartilage is stretched the skin, with no flesh what-
ever between the two. This cartilage can be completely skinned
out and replaced with a leaden imitation. It must be skinned
out ; for if it is not done, the hair will probably all slip off the
MOUNTING MAMMAL HEADS.
161
FIG. 33.— Skinning a Deer's Ear.
ear ; but, even supposing1 that it does not, an equally bad tiling-
happens. "When the head is mounted and dry, the ears will be-
gin to shrink and shrivel up like a pair of dry autumn leaves,
and the beauty of the head is gone for-
ever ! In skinning- out the ear cartilage,
a sharp scalpel of large size, or a carti-
lage-knife, is the best instrument, and it
should be held in the fingers precisely
as one holds a pen in writing. A good,
keen pocket-knife is plenty good enough
for all emergencies.
Begin at the fleshy base of the ear,
detach the skin from the cartilage by
cutting, and by pulling and pushing the
two apart with the thumb and fingers
(Fig. 33). Of course you must stop at
the edge of the cartilage, and be very
careful not to cut through the skin there.
Keep right on up the back of the ear, gradually turning the
ear wrong side out, until you reach the tip (Fig. 34). The ear
is now wrong side out, and the
skin is detached from the back of
the cartilage, but still adheres on
the inside. Now begin at the tip,
where the cartilage is thinnest
(Fig. 35), peel it up, and by the
same process as before gradually
work the inside skin loose with-
out cutting fli)-(»i(//i the skin at
any point, until it is free quite
down to the base of the ear, so far
within that when the skin is cut
straight across and turned right
side out again, the point of de-
tachment cannot be seen (Fig. 3(0.
It is likely that the beginner will find this a difficult opera-
tion, for it really is so until one has done at least one pair of
oars. After that, with a fresh specimen, the process is simple
and easy. Save the ear cartilage in your salt-and-alum bath,
if
PIG. 34.— The Ear Ila'.f-skinned.
162
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
for you will need it presently as a model in making a leaden
imitation to take its place.
9. The skin is now off. To preserve it in the field, first pare
away the flesh that may have been left adhering- to it, espe-
FIQ. 35.— Skinning down the Inside.
FIG. 3G.— The Cartilage Out.
cially at the lips and end of the nose, and wash it clean. If you*
have arsenical soap, anoint it thoroughly over the inside, then
literally smother it in salt. You need not dry the skin if you
have plenty of salt for it. If you have but a limited quantity,
attend to the poisoning to keep off insects, then rub on as
much salt as you have to spare, hang the skin up in a shady
place over a pole, open it out widely so that the air will circu-
late freely upon all parts of it, and let it dry. In a dry climate
a skin can be dried in this way and successfully preserved (tem-
porarily) even when you have neither poison nor preservative
of any kind to put on it ; but it must be watched and guarded
with jealous care until you get it safely home, or in the hands
of a taxidermist, to prevent its being eaten up by insects, rats,
or dogs.
In moist climates, ground alum is to be used in lieu of salt,
and all skins must be dried unless you have a salt-and-aluui bath
for them. In preserving heads, the sportsman will find that
ten pounds of salt, or in the tropics ten pounds of alum, will go
a long ways, if care is taken to keep a skin open until it is
MOUNTING MAMMAL HEADS. 163
nearly dry. Never, save as a last resort, dry a skin in the sun,
and never hang one up by the nose.
The Skull. — Of course the skull must always be cleaned and
saved, as directed elsewhere.
Paring down the skin, preparatory to mounting. See Chap-
ter xni.
THE WORK OF MOUNTING. — We will suppose that the head
skin has been fully cured or relaxed in the salt-and-alum bath,
pared down quite thin with draw-shave and knife, the holes
have been neatly sewn up, and the ear cartilages skinned out.
WTe will also suppose that the skull has been cleaned with the
knife in the first place, and afterward boiled and scraped to re-
move the last vestiges of animal matter. If the skin and skull
have been thus attended to, the mounted head will be clean
enough and free enough from all animal odors, when dry, to go
into my lady's boudoir, or into the dining-room of the White
House.
There are almost as many different methods of mounting mam-
mal heads as there are taxidermists, but I shall describe only
my own. I have tried various other methods than that to be
described, but without satisfactory results, and I offer this as
being at once the simplest and easiest for the amateur, as well
as the professional worker, and above all, the one by which the
finest results are obtainable. The operator retains full control
of the shape of the specimen almost up to the last moment,
which I consider a sine qua nan in any method. The method
should be your servant, not your master. Judging from the ex-
tent to which this method has been adopted among the taxi-
dermists of this country since I first described it in a paper
read before the Society of American Taxidermists, in New York,
in 1883, it may be considered to possess some merit.
1. We have before us the clean skull. Procure about two
pounds of plaster Paris, and a piece of board an inch or an inch
and a half thick, three or four inches wide, and about two feet
long. This is to be the neck standard. With the hatchet
round off the corners of one end. Then, with a saw and cold
chisel, cut a long, narrow hole in the base of the skull, so that
the end of the neck standard can pass through it into the lira in
cavity, and strike against the top of the skull (Fig. 37). Tlie
164
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
opening- should be cut lengthwise with the skull, and only just
large enough to receive the end of the board comfortably. In
case it is desired to
i
have the head turned
to one side, looking
to the right or left,
the neck standard
must be fitted into
the skull accordingly.
An iron rod may be
used instead of a
wooden standard, if
the operator finds it
more convenient.
2. Now place the
skull upside down on
the table, with the
forehead on a level
with the table - top,
and proceed to set
one end of the neck
standard in the skull.
This is done as fol-
lows : Into about a
quart of water, placed
in a basin or large
bowl, sprinkle the
plaster Paris, a hand-
ful at a time, until the
water is filled with it
and wTill take up no
more. Then stir it
thoroughly with a
spoon, and after placing the end of the neck standard in the
skull cavity in a perpendicular position, pour the plaster around
the end of it, filling the brain cavity, and piling it up on the
base of the skull in a copious mass, so that when it hardens the
board will be immovably fixed. The plaster should also fill
around the articulations of the lower jaw, to make that also a
PIG. 37. — Internal Mechanism of a Deer Head.
MOUNTING MAMMAL HEADS.
fixture in its place. The neck standard should be set at a riyht
f.mgle with the axis of the skull. This may seem strange to you
at first, but you will presently see that the angle is correct.
While the plaster is hardening, which it will do in about
twenty minutes, you must leave the head undisturbed and busy
yourself with giving the final touches to the skin, or to the
preparation of some clay and tow for future use.
3. When the plaster has fully set, you are ready to decide
upon the length of
neck to be shown, and
the general pose of
the head. Having de-
cided upon the for-
mer, which is a mat-
ter of taste, you can
have an assistant hold
the side of the neck
standard up against
the side of a door-post
in about the pose you
wish it to have, while
you stand off and sur-
vey it at a distance,
and change the eleva-
tion until it suits you.
Then, mark where the
neck standard is to be
sawn off, and also the
precise angle, and saw
it off. Having done
this, have the head
held up against the
wall as it will be when
mounted, and see that
the elevation of the
• i L T£ -i • FIG. 38.— Complete Manikin for Deer Head, without Clay
llOSe IS right. If it IS Covering.
too high or too low,
saw off the end of the neck standard at a different angle, and
be sure that the attitude is right before proceeding farther
166 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
4. The next step is to cut a board to fit into the lower end of
the neck. Its approximate circumference can be determined by
measuring1 the width and depth of the neck the proper distance
down. The shape of the board must be about like that shown
in Fig1. 37 — a broad oval, broadest at the top, or else an ellipse.
Bevel off the upper and lower ends on opposite sides to match
the outline of the neck, and then screw it firmly to the lower
end of the neck standard. It may be necessary to alter the shape
of the neck-board a little later on, which is easily done.
5. Now take some excelsior, or straw, or fine, soft hay, and
build up a false neck of the proper shape and size to fit the skin
by placing the material around the neck standard and winding-
it down with cotton twine (Fig. 38). It is a very pleasing task
to form a neck by this easy process, and impart to it the grace-
ful curves, the taper, and flatness near the head so characteristic
of the deer. You can show the windpipe and gullet by sewing-
through the neck from side to side, and forming- a hollow from
the corner of the jaw down the side of the neck, as shown in the
figure. You now have the form of the neck wholly under your
control, and your eye and hand will be held accountable for the
result. Be careful to make the neck much smaller than it is to
be when the skin is on. The thick coat of hair makes a vast
difference in the size, and adds perhaps half an inch, or more,
all around.
If you are mounting1 an old skin that has for years been in a
dry state and requires much powerful stretching to bring1 it out
to its proper size, you will be compelled to stuff the neck with
straw in the old way, so as to put great pressure upon it from
within, and stretch the skin by sheer force. Of course you will
lose many of the fine points, but very often a skin is so hard
and refractory that it can be mounted in no other way. In
working1 by this method the neck is stuffed from the lower end,
and the neck-board fitted and screwed into place afterward.
6. Make the neck smooth by winding ; make it symmetrical
and true to nature, and try the skin on it occasionally to test the
proportions of your manikin. There is to be no " stuffing1 " of
the neck after the skin is once on, therefore the manikin must
be made correctly.
7. When the neck is at last finished, work up about half a pail-
MOUNTING MAMMAL HEADS. ] 67
ful of potters' clay until it forms a soft, sticky paste, and cover
the iieck with a coat of it about an eighth of an inch thick, t< >
insure absolute smoothness.
8. Put a proper quantity of clay on each side of the skull to
form the animal's cheeks, and enough upon the back of the
skull, forehead, and muzzle to replace the flesh and skin that
has been cut away. On no account attempt to stuff a fresh
head with tow, or any fibrous material, for it is a practical im-
possibility to keep it from becoming too large. Instead of clay
you might possibly use papier-mache, putty, or plaster Paris,
if you prefer either ; but clay has many and great advantages
over all other materials. Plaster Paris acts too quickly to be of
much real use, putty is greasy and inert, and papier-mache
dries too slowly when underneath a skin.
9. Before putting the skin in place, sew up whatever rents
there may be in it, and replace the cartilage of the ear with thin
sheet lead, or sheet tin, cut the proper shape and trimmed
down thin at the edges. Ptub a little clay on the metal to en-
able the skin to stick to it. Sheet lead can be purchased at
about 10 cents per pound at almost any large plumbing estab-
lishment. The finest material, however, and which I have
used for years, is pure sheet tin, which the National Museum
procures of The John J. Cooke Co., Mulberry Street, New York,
at 26 cents per pound. It is thin, easily cut and shaped, and
just stiff enough to work perfectly in imitating the shape of an
ear cartilage. Good, firm, card-board can be used for the ears
instead of lead, when you can not get either of the sheet metals.
10. Anoint the skin copiously with arsenical soap, give it time
to absorb the poison, then put it in place on the skull and neck,
and adjust it carefully. Fasten the lips together at the end of
the muzzle by taking a stitch in each and tying the thread. See
that the eyes come exactly over the orbits, and then put two or
three tacks through the skin of the forehead, into the skull, to
hold it in place. Sew the skin tightly together around the base
of the antlers, and sew up both arms of the Y.
11. Sometimes the skin of the neck is so much stretched that
to fill it out would make the neck, when finished, entirely too
l.-n'ge. In such cases, with a clay-covered manikin, it is possible
to make a fresh skin contract mechanically by crowding it to-
168 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
gether in minute wrinkles in order to make an undue fulness
disappear.
12. Before sewing up the skin along1 the back of the neck,
(which must be done with very strong limn " gilling thread,"
well waxed to keep it from rotting) put enough clay at the base
of each ear and on the back of the skull to properly form those
parts. Observe that in a live deer the base of the ear is quite
close up to the burr of the antler, and it also has a peculiar shape,
which should be studied and faithfully reproduced, but can
hardly be described.
13. If the manikin is of the right size and shape, you are now
ready to sew up the skin ; nail it fast with small brads around
the lower edge of the neck-board, and trim the surplus oft*
neatly and evenly. Screw the head upon a rough shield or
piece of board, so that it will stand alone on your table while
you are working at the face.
14. Unless you have carefully studied a deer's head in the
flesh, or have a cast to work by, you can not reasonably expect
to be able to make the head precisely as it should be. Fifteen
minutes of close and studious examination and note-taking of a
head in the flesh will do for you what my poor pen could not
hope to accomplish with ten pages of written matter.
15. There yet remains that part of the work which requires
the most artistic treatment. In finishing the face, the first thing
is to shape the cheeks, which is quickly done provided they are
filled with precisely the proper quantity of clay. By trial you
will find whether more clay must be put in, or some taken out.
After the cheeks, form the eyebrow, fill the orbit with clay, and
with a small wire nail fasten the skin down in that deep pit
which is found in front of the anterior corner of the eye. Press
the skin down upon the muzzle, fill in the lips with clay, and
fold them as they were before skinning. Before bringing the
lips together, fill out the nose, the chin, and corners of the
mouth — but not, too full, however. That done satisfactorily,
bring the lips together ao they were in life. No wiring or sew-
ing is necessary, nor even pinning. It is to be supposed that
you have kept the skin of the lower jaw pulled well forward into
place, and if so, the lips will go together easily and stay there
for all time to come. In modeling the end of the nose and the
PLATE XI.
OP PHONG-HORN ANTELOPE.
MOUNTED BY THE AUTHOU.
MOUNTING .MAMMAL HEADS. 169
nostrils, give the latter good depth. Make the opening- so deep
that no one can ever see the bottom of it. No little fault dis-
gusts me more than to see the nostrils of a deer, buffalo, or elk
all plastered up with putty, as if the animal had never drawn a
breath. Make your animal look as if it were brat filing, rather
than standing- up with rods in its legs, and its hide full of rub-
bish.
16. The eyes come next. Arrange the lids carefully over the
clay, which nearly nils the orbit, then insert the glass eye,
(which in every ruminant should have an elongated pupil and
white corners), and work it into its exact position. Do not
have too much clay behind it, or it will have a bulging, overfed,
or choked-to-death expression. Do not let it protrude until it
could be knocked off the head with a bean-pole, or lassoed with
a grape-vine. Keep the eye well down in the orbit, and the
front corner \vell sunken. An animal's expression depends upon
the eye more than any other one thing, and the expression of
the eye is dependent upon the disposition of the eyelid and the
line of sight. A good glass eye has just as much power of va-
ried expression as has a living, naked eyeball — which is //"
jxnoer whatever — unless it be the eyeball of an angry cat.
17. See that both eyes look at the same point, in front, about
eight feet distant ; that precisely the same amount of iris
shows in each, in short, that both are exactly alike in every re-
spect. A deer should have a mild, but wide-awake — not star-
ing— expression, and the attitude should not be unpleasantly
strained, either in the curve of the neck or the carriage of the
head. Avoid the common error of making a deer's head too
" proud." No goose-necks or goitre on your deer, if you please.
Having finished the eyes and fashioned the nostrils, cut sonic
pieces of pasteboard, bend them to the right shape, and either
sew or pin them upon the ears to hold them in precisely the
right attitude until they dry. If the ears have lead in them they
will support themselves. Lastly, wash the head thoroughly t<>
get all the dirt and clay out of the hair, and comb it until it
lays naturally. Now hang the head up in a dry room and leave
it for a month, if possible, two weeks at all hazards.
AYhon quite dry and shrunken, Ifrush it well, and rub around
the mouth, nose, eyes, and ears with a tooth-brush to remove the
170 TAXIDERMY A1STD ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
last remaining- suggestions of clay. (See chapter on " Finishing-
Mounted Mammals.")- Paint the end of the nose and edges of
the eyelids with Vandyke brown and black, using oil colors. The
hairless parts of the lips are entirely concealed, consequently
there is no painting to be done around the mouth unless the
shrinkage has slightly parted the lips. If this has occurred
put some black paint in the crack.
By all means mount a handsome head upon a rich and hand-
some shield. Tastes differ widely, but for my part I dislike a
thin, light shield, and one not nicely finished is also an eyesore.
The wood should be of a color that will harmonize best with the
color of the head upon it. The finest shields are made of cherry
ebonized, or red- wood, black walnut, oak, mahogany, or maple,
and highly polished. The best shape for a shield is such as
that seen behind the caribou head in Plate XVI.
CHAPTER XX.
FACIAL EXPKESSION AND MOUTH MODELING.
WE have now reached one of the most interesting- features of
all taxiderinic work. There is no royal road to success in this
direction, nor aught else that leads thither save hard study,
hard work, and an artistic sense of the eternal fitness of things.
The large Felidfv (tiger, lion, leopard, etc.) are the finest sub-
jects for the taxidermist that the whole animal kingdom can
produce. They offer the finest opportunities for the develop-
ment of muscular anatomy, and the expression of the various
higher passions. The best that I can do with the space at my
disposal for this subject is to offer the reader a few hints on
how to produce certain expressions, illustrated by an accurate
drawing from one of my mounted specimens.
In the first place, strive to catch the spirit of your subject.
It frequently happens that the attitude desired for a feline or
other carnivorous animal is one expressive of anger, rage, or de-
fiance. For a single specimen, the most striking attitude pos-
sible is that of a beast at bay. Unless a carnivorous animal is
to be represented in the act of seizing something, the mouth
should not be opened very wide. It is a common fault with
taxidermists to open the jaws of such an animal too widely, so
that the effect striven for is lost, and the animal seems to be
yawning prodigiously, instead of snarling. Open the jaws a
moderate distance, indicating a readiness to open wider without
an instant's warning. The thick, fleshy part of the upper lip
is lifted up to clear the teeth for action, and the mustached
portion is bunched up until it shows two or three curving
wrinkles, with the middle of the curve upward. This crowds
the nostril opening together, and changes its shape very
materially. In most carnivora, but most strikingly so in bears,
172 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
the end of the lower lip falls away slightly from the lower
incisors.
In old lions and tigers the face wrinkles pretty much all over,
especially across the nose and under the eyes. In all the Felicia1
the opening of the eye changes most strikingly. When angry,
the eye of a ruminant animal opens its widest, and shows por-
tions of the eyeball that are never seen otherwise. In the car-
nivora, the reverse is the case. As if to protect the eye from
being clawed or bitten, the upper eyelid is drawn well down
over the ball, as seen in Plate I. (Frontispiece), and the eyebrows
are bunched up and drawn near together until the scowl be-
comes frightful. The decks are further cleared for action in the
disposition of the ears. Instead of leaving them up ready to be
bitten off, they are " unshipped," and laid back as far as possible,
close down upon the neck, and out of harm's way. The tongue
also pulls itself together, contracts in the middle, curves up at
the edges, and makes ready to retire farther back between the
jaws at the instant of seizure.
All this time the body is not by any means standing idly and
peacefully at ease. The attitude must match the expression of
the face, or the tragedy becomes a farce. The body must stand
firmly on its legs, alert, ready either to attack or defend, head
turned, body slightly bent, or slightly crouching, and, unless
the animal is walking, with the tail switching nervously from
side to side. If the animal is walking forward, the tail should
be held still and in the same vertical plane as the body. The
finest attitude for a large carnivor is one which represents it at
bay, and awaiting attack. A cat is an animal of a thousand at-
titudes. Very many of them, if reproduced exactly in a mount-
ed specimen, would look very uncouth and devoid of beauty ;
therefore, choose those which are at once characteristic and
pleasing to the eye.
MODELING AN OPEN MOUTH. — In mounting a feline animal
with mouth open and teeth showing, beware what you do, or
you will make the animal laughing instead of snarling. This is
often done ! In fact, in my younger days I did it once myself
—but without any extra charge.
In modeling an open mouth, first fill the inside of the lips
with clay, and also back them up underneath with clay until the
FACIAL EXPRESSION AND MOUTH MODELING.
173
lips, when fixed in position, have the expression desired. The
inner edg-e of the hairless portion of the lower lip should fit up
close against the jaw bone, and perhaps be tacked down upon it
temporarily. Very often it is necessary to hold the lips in po-
sition, while drying, by sewing- through the edges- and passing
the thread across the jaws from side to side. The skin of the
nose must be fully backed up with clay, so that no hollows are
left into which the skin can shrink away in drying. It is often
desirable to hold the end of the lower lip up to its place, while
drying1, by driving1 a small wire nail through it into the bone.
Do not fill the mouth full of clay, for it must be borne in mind
that the final modeling of the soft parts of the mouth must be
Modeling Tools of Wood.
done in papier-mache. It is no small task to dig out of a mouth
a quantity of clay and tow after it has become hard ; therefore,
leave a place for the tongue.
A head must be thoroughly dry and shrunken before the
mouth can be finished and made permanent. In drying, the
lips draw away from the gums somewhat, which is just as it
should be. The first step is to clear away the dry clay from
around the teeth and lips, and get everything clean and ready
for the maehe. Then make some fine papier-mache, as describ-
ed elsewhere, that is sticky enough to adhere firmly to smooth
bone, and of such consistency that it works well in modeling.
With this, and your modeling spatulas and other tools of steel,
zinc, or hard wood (see Figs. 39-44), cover the jaw bones to re-
place the fleshy gums, and fill up to the edges of the lips so
that they seem to be attached to the g-ums as in life. Coat the
roof of the mouth, and model its surface into the same peculiar
174
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
corrugations that you saw in the mouth immediately after
death.
This is slow work. It requires a good eye, a skilful, artistic
touch, and unlimited patience. If you are
an artist, prove it now by the fidelity with
which you copy nature in this really diffi-
cult work.
In modeling the surface of papier-mache,
you must have a clean, well-polished mod-
eling-tool, like Fig. 42, and by wetting it
now and then so that it will slip over
the surface, your work can be made very
smooth.
Next comes the tongue. The only per-
fect tongue for a feline animal is a natural
tongue, skinned, and stuffed with clay.
The papillae on the tongue of a lion, tiger,
leopard, or puma simply defy imitation,
and after many experiments with many
1 different animals I found that with the
real tongue, and with that only, one can
reproduce nature itself and defy criticism.
Of course, this is possible only when you
have the animal in the flesh, and can cut
out the tongue and preserve it in alcohol
until you are ready to mount it.
To prepare a tiger's tongue, for exam-
ple, first preserve the whole tongue in al-
cohol, for safe keeping. When ready to
proceed, slit it open lengthwise under-
neath, and skin it carefully. Take a piece
of sheet lead, cut it and hammer it into
the right size and shape, and fit it in the
Modeling Tools of steel. mouth as nearly as possible in the shape
the finished tongue is to have. By judic-
ious hammering with the round end of a machinist's hammer you
can give it any shape you desire. When it is just right, cover it
with clay to replace the flesh of the tongue, treat the skin with
arsenical soap, put it over, and sew it up. Now fit the tongue
FACIAL EXPRESSION AND MOUTH MODELING.
17.-)
FIG. 45. — Side View t>! Timor's Tongue.
into the mouth, and by pressure with the fingers change its
shape wherever necessary in order to make it fit exactly as you
wish to have it.
When finished, lay it ,,..^>"-^^~.^.
J ,/».<"'• •;'„. '•'-.". ' fjivF?**
• -| , -i mi ' ****'*£'****&/* f '?*• •?*"- * . .
aside to dry. Ihe ac-
companying figures
were drawn from the
finished tongue of
the tiger represented
in Plate I., where it
is seen in place.-
Wheii the tongue is dry it must be painted with oil colors,
using a little turpentine so that the surface shall not be too
glossy, nor have a varnished look. Vermilion and white are
the best colors to use, and above all do not make the tongue or
lips look like pink candy, or red flannel, or red sealing-wax.
Call up the household cat at an early stage
of the proceedings, and use her mouth as a
model, whether she will or no. A patient old
tabby is an invaluable ally in the mounting
of feline animals of all sorts, and Towser will
also help you out with your Canidce. When modeling the
mouth or muscles of a gorilla or orang utan, catch the first
amateur taxidermist you can lay your hands on— the wilder
and greener the better — and use him as your model. Study
him, for he is fearfully and wonderfully made. The way
some of my good-
natured colleagues
used to pose for me
as (partly) nude mod-
els at Ward's, when
I once had a ten-
months' siege with
orangs, gorillas, and
chimpanzees, was a
constant source of
wonder and delight to the ribald crew of osteologists who knew
nothing of high art.
Fortunately the tongues of most large mammals are smooth,
FIO. 4G.-EBd view.
'• ' ^=^
•as&ssS •' -••••' - ••'••
FIG. 4T.— Tiger's Tongue, Top View.
176 TAXIDERMY AXD ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
and are easily reproduced by using the same leaden core as de-
scribed above, and covering it first with papier-mache, drying-
it, and coating1 with tinted wax, laid on hot with a small flat
paint-brush called a "fitch." With small specimens it is not
necessary to make the tongue as a separate piece, or put a
leaden core in it. Fill into the mouth a sufficient quantity of
papier-mache, pack it down, and then proceed to model the
surface of it into a tongue, shaped to suit the subject. Such a
tongue is, of course, a fixture in the mouth.
Cleaning Teeth. — Before finishing a mouth with wax, the teeth
must be washed clean with a stiff brush. If they will not come
out white enough to suit you, wash them with a solution of two
parts muriatic acid and one part water, applied with a tooth-
brush if possible. Let it stay on the teeth about a quarter of a
minute, when it must be washed off with an abundance of clear
water. If the acid stays on too long, it will destroy the entire
outer surface (enamel) of the teeth.
Waxing a Mouth. — Of course it will answer, and sometimes
quite well enough, perhaps, when a mouth has been hand-
somely and smoothly modeled in fine papier-mache, to sand-
paper it and paint it over when dry with two or three coats of
oil color. You can hardly do otherwise, in fact, when you are
not prepared to work with wax. But the really fine way, how-
ever, is to coat your dry papier-mache with tinted wax as fol-
lows :
Procure from the nearest dealer in artists' materials some
cakes of white wax. You must also have a small oil or gas
stove, or a spirit-lamp, and rig above it a wire frame on which
you can set your wax cup. The wax cups should be small, and
made of pressed tin, so that they contain no soldered joints.
The wax is to be applied hot, or at least quite warm, for bear in
mind that if you heat your wax too hot it changes its color
quite perceptibly, and makes it dark and yellow. Wax should
aliuays be clear and transparent, and when the excess of heat
turns it yellow, throw it away.
Regulate the heat carefully, so as to make it gentle. Melt a
small portion of a cake of wax in one of your clean tin cups,
and if it is the tongue, roof of the mouth or gums, that you
have to cover, color the wax a delicate flesh tint by putting into
FACIAL EXPRESSION AND MOUTH MODELING. 177
it a very little vermilion, or other suitable color, from your
Windsor & Newton oil-color tube. Oil colors mix very well
with hot wax ; but in using1 it, it is necessary to keep the wax
well stirred with the brush, or the color will settle to the bot-
tom.
Take a clean, dry bristle brush, of the right size (the flat
brushes are always best for wax), with a good, compact point,
dip it into the hot wax, stir from the bottom, and then, before
the wax on your brush has even two seconds in which to get
cool, apply it to the surface to be covered, with a quick, dex-
trous touch, sweeping it on broadly to keep it from piling up
and making- the surface rough. This wax business requires
genuine skill, and, after beginning1, one must not be discour-
aged because it does not " go right " at first, but try, try again.
After your hand has acquired the trick, the beauty of the re-
sults will amply repay your labor.
It is very difficult to change the surface of a coat of wax after
it is once on ; therefore try to get it right with the brush.
Of course, if the color or surface doos not suit you, scrape it all
off, and "to 't again." To treat the roof of the mouth, the speci-
men must be turned upside down. At the point where the
black lip joins the pink gums, the two colors can be nicely
blended by letting the last layers of pink wax lap over a trifle,
upon the black, so that the latter will show through- the
former here and there, and give the line of demarcation a mot-
tled appearance, with the two colors thus blended together.
Much can be done by taking advantage of the transparency of
thin layers of wax when its color is light.
After the wax has cooled, something can be done to smooth
the surface, and give it a very shiny appearance, by carefully
scraping the surface over smoothly with the edge of a knife, or
a sharp bone-scraper. The latter tool will be found of great
value in modeling a mouth in papier-mache, and also in trim-
ming up the wax after it has been applied.
(~'/<'tnii)i.ff Glass Eyes. — Always have the glass eyes of a fin-
ished specimen faultlessly clean and well polished, to give the
brilliancy of life. If paint gets on the glass, remove it with a
drop of turpentine, and polish afterward with a bit of cotton
cloth. Soni'.* of the old-fashioned taxidermists have the habit
12
178 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
of smearing* a lot of nasty lamp-black in the eyes of every
mounted mammal, for what purpose no one knows — but possi-
bly in imitation of actresses, some of whom have the same un-
accountable trick, and a hideous one it is in its results, in both
cases. There is only one point in its favor — it is the easiest
way in the world to give an animal a black eye.
CHAPTEE XXI.
EELAXING DRY SKINS OF BIRDS.
As usual with most processes in taxidermy, there are several
ways in which a dry bird skin may be softened, and made ready
to mount or make over. I will first describe the one I consider
the best in all respects.
TREATMENT OF SMALL SKINS. — Open the skin and remove the
filling1 from the body, neck, and head. Tear some old cotton
cloth into strips from one to two inches wide, wet them in warm
water and wrap one around each leg and foot until it is com-
pletely covered with several thicknesses of the wet cloth. Lift
up the wing1 and put two or three thicknesses of wet cloth, or
else thoroughly wet cotton batting1, around the carpal joints, and
also between the wing1 and the body. Put some more wet cot-
ton, or rags, inside the skin, in the body and neck, wrap the
whole specimen completely in several thicknesses of wet cloth,
so as to exclude the air, and lay it aside. If the skin is no larger
than a robin, in about twelve to fourteen hours it will be soft
enough to mount. The scraping- and cleaning1 will be considered
later.
TREATMENT OF LARGE SKINS. — Under this heading- it is neces-
sary to place nearly all birds above the size of a robin, for the
reason that the legs and feet, being large and thick in com-
parison with the skin of the body, require special treatment in
advance. The legs and wings of some birds require several
days' soaking, and were the thin skin of the body to be relaxed
for the same length of time, it would macerate, and the feathers
would fall off. The legs and wings of large birds must, there-
fore, be started first in the relaxing process.
Let us take, for example, the skin of a ruffed grouse ( Htmu^i.
If the skin is an old one, rover the toe-nai^ and
180 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
beak with hot wax, or else by much soaking the horny sheaths
will flake off. Wrap the feet and leg's with wet cloths, as de-
scribed above, and let the skin lie without any other wrapping
for one day. By the end of that time the joints can be bent
somewhat, and they should be manipulated until they bend
easily. When they will do this, put wet cloths around the joints
of the wings, under the wings, inside of the body and the neck,
and wrap the whole skin in a wet cloth of the proper size.
By the end of the second day the entire skin will be soft and
pliable, and smelling like an African shanty — damp and musty.
Of course the larger the skin the longer it will take to com-
pletely relax. Sometimes the wings of very large birds require
soaking half as long as the legs, but care must be exercised not
to soak any feathered parts too long, or the feathers are liable
to fall out and cause trouble. By this process skins may be
softened and made ready to mount, according to their size, as
follows : Wren to robin, in twelve to fourteen hours ; ruffed
grouse, two days ; great blue heron, three days ; bald eagle, four
days ; condor, five days ; ostrich, six to seven days. Skins
which are less than one year old soften in about half the time
they would require if five years old, and if properly made in
the first place, will make as handsome mounted specimens as
would fresh skins.
WET SAND. — Some taxidermists soften dry bird skins by bury-
ing them in wet sand after the legs and wings have been relaxed
in the way already described. I have tried it occasionally with
small skins, and found that the results were quite satisfactory.
A GOOD " SwEAT-Box." — Professor L. L. Dyche, of the Uni-
versity of Kansas, described to me a sweat-box which he has
used, and which is certainly a good one for the creation of a
damp atmosphere for the softening of skins, and also to keep
half-finished birds in over night, to prevent them from drying
up. What a deal of trouble the bird taxidermists of my ac-
quaintance might have saved themselves during the last ten
years had they known of, or devised, this simple but perfect con-
trivance. It is made by selecting a wooden box, of the right
size to suit, providing a hinged cover, and coating the entire
inside with plaster Paris an inch or so in thickness. To make
use of it, it is filled with water and allowed to stand until the
RELAXING DRY SKINS OF BIRDS. 181
plaster lining- has soaked full, when the rest of the water is
emptied out. If a layer of wet sand is spread over the bottom,
the saturation of the air inside the box, when closed, will be still
more complete.
A HEROIC METHOD OF RELAXATION. — Mr. William Brewster
thus describes " A New Wrinkle in Taxidermy," in Messrs.
Southwick & Jencks' " Random Notes," vol. ii., No. 1 :
"Wishing1 to turn a mounted bird into a skin, and having
but a limited time to devote to the task, I tried an experiment.
Taking- a funnel, and inserting- the pointed end in the stuffing
between the edges of the skin on the abdomen, I poured in a
quantity of hot water (nearly boiling- hot) taking- care to regu-
late the injection so that it should be rather slowly absorbed by
the stuffing, and holding- the bird at various angles, that every
portion of the anterior might become soaked. The effect was
magical ; the skin quickly relaxed, and within fifteen minutes I
could bend the neck and make other required changes without
any risk of a break.
" My first experiment was with a gull ; afterward I tried other
birds, both large and small, with equal success. I found also
that the plan worked equally well with skins which had been
overstuffed, or otherwise badly made. In a very few minutes
they would become nearly as tractable as when freshly taken
from the birds, and much more so than I have ever succeeded in
making them by the use of a damping-box. The only difficulty
experienced was that the water, especially if turned in too fast.
would escape through shot-holes and other rents in the skin,
thus wetting the plumage in places. Of course, after the re-
quired improvements or changes have been made, the stuffing is
so thoroughly saturated that the skin must be placed in a very
warm place to dry. I dried mine most successfully by placing
them on a furnace register, and leaving them exposed to the full
blast of heat for several days."
SCRAPING AND CLEANING RELAXED SKINS.— After a dry bird
skin has been softened, it then remains to scrape it clean and
manipulate it all over to get it into thoroughly elastic working
order, as soft and pliable (if possible) as when first taken off.
Small skins should be scraped with the round end of a small
bone-scraper, which has a sharp chisel edge, but the large on< ^
182 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
must be scraped with a small -toothed skin scraper such as is
used on small mammals.
Of the many thousand species of recent birds, only the
ostriches, penguins, and a few others have the feathers distrib-
uted evenly over the whole body. In all the EuornifTies they are
arranged in regular patches or groups, called pterylos, between
which lie the naked or downy spaces, called apteria. In thin-
skinned birds it is the pterylce that need to be attacked with the
scraper, and so scraped and stretched and pulled apart that the
skin widens, and each feather is free, as in life, to move on its
own root independently, and take whatever position it should
have on the mounted bird. Turn the skin completely wrong
side out, scrape it all over, and get every part fully relaxed, and
into thorough working order. Large birds, or birds with thick,
fat skins, require plenty of work to get out all the grease, and
get the wings, legs, and head into a thorough state of collapse.
In large, long-legged birds, the tendons must be removed from
the leg, the same as if the specimen were a fresh one, for other-
wise the wire may split the skin of the tarsus wide open, and
make a very bad and unsightly turn at the heel besides. It is a
difficult task to remove the tendon from the leg of an old, dry
heron or crane, but it must be done.
DAMAGED SKINS. — It not infrequently happens that in clean-
ing and scraping a rare and valuable old skin it proves to be
" burnt " with grease, and goes to pieces like so much brown
paper.
"Now is the winter of our discontent."
If the skin is not torn too badly it may be lined with thin cot-
ton or linen cloth, which must be cut and fitted within, and
sewed fast to the skin all over. This plan, though rather tedious
to work out, develops admirably when determinedly and care-
fully pursued.
If the skin goes all to pieces, a manikin must be made, and
the pieces glued upon it, one by one, beginning at the tail,— a
process which is so simple it is unnecessary to describe it in
detail. In Fig. 50 is seen a manikin all ready to receive its
feathers, wings, and head.
PH
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CHAPTER XXII.
MOUNTING SMALL BIRDS.
WE will suppose that the skin of a small bird — a robin, black-
bird, or thrush — now lies on the table before us all ready for
mounting1. Perhaps it is a dry skin which has been thoroughly
relaxed, scraped, and worked into pliant shape ; but, for the sake
of the beginner, we will assume that it is a fresh skin which has
just been taken off, poisoned, and turned right side out again,
in accordance with the directions for skinning small birds which
have been given in Chapter VI. The body of the bird lies be-
fore you, and instead of making- up the subject as a dry skin, we
will mount it.
In mounting- small birds the following- tools are absolutely
necessary to the production of good results : A pair of flat-nosed
pliers six inches long, for bending- and clinching wrires, price
sixty cents ; a pair of six-inch cutting pliers, for cutting wire,
eighty-five cents ; a pair of bird-stuffer's forceps, four to six
inch, price twenty to seventy -five cents ; a nine-inch flat file,
twenty-two cents. Make for yourself a stuffing-rod, by taking a
piece of stiff" brass or iron wire, a little larger and longer than a
knitting-needle, hammering one end flat, with a slight upward
curve, and inserting the other in an awl-handle.
Of materials you will need some excelsior ; some clean, fine
tow; a little putty or potter's clay; a spool of cotton thread, No.
40, and some suitable glass eyes. With our tools and materials
ready at hand, and the skin of our bird lying before us right
side out, we are ready to begin a new operation, — mounting.
For a bird the size of a robin or cat-bird, cut two pieces of
No. 18 soft or " annealed " iron wire (hard wire heated red hot
and allowed to cool slowly), each three times the length of the
bird's legs, from foot to end of long leg-bone, or tarsus. File
184 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
one end of each wire to a slender and very sharp point, and rub
a little oil or grease on each so that it will easily slip when in-
side the leg.
Now take one of the bird's legs between the thumb and finger
of the left hand, holding- it at the foot with the back part up-
permost, and with the other hand enter the point of one of
the sharpened wires at the centre of foot, push the wire up
the back of the leg- and over the heel until the point reaches to
where the leg has been skinned. Be sure that you do not run
the wire up the side of the leg, either at foot or knee, for if you
do it will show badly when the bird is dry. Also be careful not
to run the sharpened wire out through the skin just above the
heel. To avoid this, grasp the leg at the heel between the
thumb and middle finger of left
hand, and by strong upward press-
ure of the first finger under the
end of the leg-bone, and of the
fourth finger under the foot, both
joints of the leg can be held ex-
actly in line until the wire passes
the heel safely and enters the
open skin above (Fig. 48). Then
FIG. 48,-Wirmg a Bird's Leg. We tum back tlie skin °f the le--
till we see the point of the wire,
after which we push the wire on up until the point passes the
end of the leg bone. We now cut off the thick upper end of
this bone, (the tibia), and wrap a little fine tow smoothly around
the bone and the wire, to replace the flesh cut away. The other
leg must, of course, be similarly treated. We are now ready to
make the body.
We have kept the body of our specimen for reference, and
now we measure the length of both body and neck, cut another
wire not quite twice their length and file it sharp at both ends.
This will be the neck-wire. Now take a handful of excelsior (tow
or oakum will also serve), compress it into an egg-shaped ball-
smaller and more pointed at one end than the other, and wrap a
very little fine tow loosely around it, to make it smooth on the
outside when finished. Now wind stout linen thread around it,
shaping it all the time by pressing it between your left thumb
MOUNTING SMALL BIRDS.
18H
BACK
F i G. 49.—
Cross Secf!. i i
of Body.
and forefinger, until at last you have a firm body, smoothly
wound, of the same general shape and size as the natural one.
When the body is half made you may run the neck-wire through
it lengthwise, letting it come out above the centre of the larger
end, because the neck is but a continuation of the backbone,
Avhich lies at the top of the body. AVheii the wire is inserted,
the upper side of the body — the back — must be pinched to-
gether and made more narrow than the breast, which is round
and full. Be sure that the body is not too large.
Better have it too small and too short than too largo
or long, for the former can be remedied later on by
filling out. 'When, the body is finished, bend up the
end of the neck wire for an inch and a half at the
lower end of the body, enter the point in the lower
part of the body and force it down and backward until
the end is firmly clinched and will forever remain
so, no matter what is done with the other end. Make the neck
by wrapping fine, soft tow sntoofJibj and evenly around the neck
wire from the body upward for the proper
distance. Make the false neck a trifle larger
than the real one, but no longer. The lx><lv
is now ready for insertion.
The next step is to take a thread and tie
the elbows together, fastening to each hu-
merus just above the elbow- joint. Xo\v
take the false body in the right hand, open
the skin, introduce the sharp end of the
neck-wire into the neck skin, fore" the wire
through the top of the skull in the cen-
tre, and push it through until the neck
and body come nicely into place. Now see
whether the body is of the right size. It
should not be so large as to fill the skin precisely, for if so it
is too large.
We must now fasten the legs to the body, and will take tin-
left one first. The leg is still perfectly straight. Hold the
lower part firmly between the thumb and finger, grasp the leg-
wire, push it on through the leg and enter the sharp point at
about the centre of the left side of the false body, and slanting
FIG. 50. — The Finished
Body and Neck, with Legs
in Position.
186
TAXIDERMY AXD ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
a little forward. (See Fig1. 51.) Now push the wire through
the body until it projects more than twice the thickness of the
body on the right side. Bend the end of the wire imtil it
forms a hook, with the point just touch-
ing the body. Now pull the wire back
imtil the point is again forced through
and out on the left side for half an
inch, which is then bent down and
forced firmly into the excelsior, and se-
curely clinched. Wire both legs in this
way, and the bird will be so firmly put
together it would be almost impossible'
to pull it asunder.
The legs move freely up and down
the leg-wires. Push them up toward
the body until the heels are in pre-
cisely the same places they were before
you skinned the bird — almost hidden in
the feathers at a point about opposite
the middle of the bird's wing. Now
bend the legs forward at a proper angle
(see a living bird or a good picture) and push some finely cut
tow down on each side of the body to fill out the place of
the thighs. Insert a little more cut tow, evenly distributed,
in the breast, where the crop would properly be, and some more
at the base of the tail.
Be sure, there are no lumps or wrongly placed masses of
chopped tow anywhere in the skin, for if there are any you can
not expect to get a smooth and well-shaped bird.
Now take a needle and thread, begin at the upper end of the
opening in the bird — on the breast, — and with careful fingers
sew the skin together without tearing it or catching the feath-
ers fast. Fill in a little tow, if necessary, as yon proceed, but
not enough to fill the skin hard and full, and when you reach
the lower end of the cut draw the skin of the tail sharply for-
ward for half an inch to take up what it has lengthened by
stretching, and sew it fast by several long cross-stitches. At
the last moment fill in a little more tow at the base of the tail,
sew up the opening, and cut off the thread. The most difficult
FIG. 51.— How the Leg Wires are
Inserted and Clinched in the False
Body.
MOTXTIXU SMALL BIRDS. 187
part of the whole operation is now before us. It now remains
to put the specimen on a perch, pin the wings fast to the bod;
adjust the feathers and wind them down, stuff the head, pin the
tail, and put in the eyes.
AVith a piece of pine board four inches square, and two round
pine sticks, each about three inches long, make a rough T
perch, similar to the one standing vacant on the table in Plate
XII. The cross-piece should not be too large for the bird's feet
to grasp comfortably. With a small gimlet, or awl, bore two
holes in the cross-bar, on a slant, about an inch apart, run the
leg-wires through them, perch the bird naturally, and twist the
wires together once underneath, to hold it firmly. Study a liv-
ing bird or a good picture, and give your specimen a correct
and natural attitude.
Out a piece of wire five inches long, sharpen one end, bend it
into a T shape, as in Fig. 50, and run the sharp end through
the base of the tail underneath, and on up into the body. The
tail feathers are to rest on and bo evenly supported by the
cross part at the lower end, which may be either straight or
curved, as occasion requires.
With the small forceps, plume and dress the feathers all o^ IT
the bird, catching them near the root, a bunch at a time, and
pulling them into place where necessary. Work them against
the grain by lifting them up and letting them fall back into
place. It will be a great help if you can at this stage procure a
dead bird of the same kind to examine, and see precisely hov.
the feathers lie. One such specimen will aid you more than
pages of description.
It often happens that the back, breast, or side of the bird is
not quite full enough at some point, or, in other words, is too
hollow. Xow is the time to remedy such defects. Lift tin-
wing and cut a slit lengthwise in the skin of the body under-
neath it, and through this opening insert fine clipped tow
wherever needed. The foivps is the best instrument to use in
doing this. The opening under the wing is of <j rent importance,
for it gives you command of one entire side of the bird's body.
You can by means of this hole fill out the back, breast, or shoul-
ders, if not full enough, and make other important changes in
the bird's form. There is no need to sew up the opening when
188 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
you have finished, for when the wing1 is pinned in place it will
be entirely hidden.
The wings must be fastened to the body before the feathers
can be fully adjusted. Cut six small wires, each two inches
long1, and sharpen at one end. Let us wire the left wing- first.
Hold it between the left thumb and forefinger, and with the
right hand push the point of one of the small wires through
the angle of the wing, commonly called the shoulder. When,
the point is well through, hold the wing in place against
the body, adjust it with great care, and when you see that the
feathers of the shoulder fall properly over the angle of the
wing, push the wire through into the excelsior body until it
holds firmly. Push another wire through at the base of the
large quills (primaries), and another through the upper part of
the wing, just below where it leaves the body. These wires are
well shown in Fig. 52. The wing now fits closely against the
body, and the feathers fall over it smoothly, so as to completely
cover the upper part of it.
Wire the other wing in the same way, taking great care that
one is not placed farther ahead than the other, nor farther up
or down on the body. The tips of the wings should touch each
other exactly at the point. Look at your bird from all sides
before finally securing the second wing.
With the wings firmly wired and the feathers nicely adjusted,
we next proceed to stuff the head. With the scissors cut up
some fine tow or cotton, and by inserting it through the mouth
with the forceps, a pinch at a time, fill out around the back and
sides of the head, the upper part of the neck and the throat.
Do not fill the skin too full, and take care that both sides of the
head are precisely the same shape and size. Take plentj7 of
time and do your work nicely.
When the head has been properly filled out, fill in each eye-
socket with a little soft clay or putty, insert the glass eyes, and
embed them in it . Study the eyes of your dead bird, and imi-
tate their appearance and position with those of your mounted
specimen. It is a good plan to put a drop of mucilage around
the inside of each eyelid and thus gum it down upon the glass
eye. Be sure that the eyes are exactly opposite one another,
and that one is not higher nor farther back than the other.
MOUNTING SMALL BIRDS.
Fasten the mandibles tog-ether by thrusting- a pin up throug-h
the lower mandible into the skull, or else by passing; a pin
through the upper mandible at the nostrils and tying around
the bill behind it with a thread.
It now remains to wind down the feathers with thread to give
the bird the exact outline we desire, and to make the feathers
lie smoothly. Attend to this with the closest attention and
care, for on the success of this process depends the smoothness
of your specimen when finished.
The best method of winding ever known is that developed and
FIG. 52.— The Winding of the Bird.
practised by Mr. F. S. Webster, whose wonderful skill in the
treatment of birds is already widely known. His birds are mar-
vels of smoothness and symmetry, and I take great pleasure in
describing his method of winding- as the best known. First
make six hook- wires by filing- six pieces of wire, each two inches
long-, to a sharp point at one end, and bending- the other with
the pliers in the form of a double hook. (See Fig-. 52.) Insert
three of these in a line along the middle of the back, and two
along the middle of the breast, as seen in the cut. The wing-
wires are not to be cut off, but left sticking- out for half an inch.
The bird is now divided into equal halves, and there are three
wing-wires on each side, so that it will not be very difficult to
wind both sides alike.
190 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
Now take a spool of white thread, No. 40, fasten the end to
the hook-wire on the top of the back ; take the base of the
pedestal in the left hand and proceed to wind down the feath
ers. By means of the hook-wires you can wind from point to
point at will, so as to bind down the feathers where they lie too
high, and skip them entirely where they lie low enough. Get
the general outline of the bird first, and apply the thread with
a light and skilful touch, so that it will not make creases in the
bird. A little practice will enable one to wind a bird with
gratifying success.
The next thing is to spread the feathers of the tail evenly,
and pin them between two strips of thin card-board placed
crosswise to hold the feathers in position until they dry.
Lastly, adjust the toes so that they grasp the perch properly,
and set the specimen away to dry where it will not be touched.
In about two or three weeks, when it is thoroughly dry, cut
the threads off with a pair of scissors, pull out the hook-wires,
cut off the projecting ends of the wing-wires close down to the
wing, and cut off the wire at the top of the head close down
into the feathers.
Mix a little varnish and turpentine together in equal parts,
and with a paint-brush paint the feet and bill in case they hap-
pen to require it. Clean the eyes and rub them until they
shine. You can perch the specimen now permanently on the
artificial twig, turned T perch, or natural twig, or whatever else
you have had in mind. In doing this, clinch the leg-wires to-
gether underneath the perch, and cut off the ends so that no
portion of the wire will show. Be neat in everything, and study
to make the bird look alive.
Do not be discouraged if your first bird is a dead failure,
nor even if your first dozen birds are fit only for immediate de-
struction. If you get discouraged because your first attempt at
anything is not a complete success, you are not fit to succeed.
Better never begin than stop short of success. If you have a
love for taxidermy, and the patience and perseverance to back it
up, you are bound to succeed.
CHAPTER XXm.
MOUNTING LAKGE BIRDS.
AFTER all that has been said in regard to mounting- small
birds, and relaxing1 and cleaning1 dry bird skins, there remains
but little to add on the subject of bird-mounting1, and that little
relates to large birds. For all birds, up to the emu and ostrich,
the principles remain about the same as those illustrated in the
mounting1 of a robin. Moreover, the mounting1 of birds is now
so generally understood it is unnecessary to dwell at great
length on this subject.
Professor L. L. Dyche has called my attention to the great
desirability of taking a series of measurements of every large
bird before it is skinned, and another series of the skinned body,
as a check on possible errors in making the false body and in
mounting. The idea is a good one, and the following are the
measurements that should be taken :
BEFORE SKINNING. — Total length ; distance from angle of
wing at the carpal joint to the eye ; distance from the end of
the closed wing to the tip of the tail : distance from the base
of the middle toe to the carpal joint of the wing.
MEASUREMENTS OF THE SKINNED CARCASS. — Length of the body ;
length of the neck ; circumference of the body around the breast ;
circumference around the abdomen.
The notes should also state whether the body and the neck
are respectively round or flat.
THE FALSE BODY. — In starting out to make a body for a large
bird, particularly one with a long neck, take a piece of wood
about the size of a large ear of corn, and much the same shape,
through one end of which pass one end of the neck-wire and
firmly staple it down. The purpose of this is to give the firm-
est attachment possible for the neck. The false body is tlu-n
192 TAXIDEEMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
made by firmly winding successive layers or bunches of excel-
sior or straw upon this wooden core, and binding each succes-
sive layer down with fine twine from start to finish, so that the
finished body shall be firm enough. If the false body is not
made hard enough, the leg- wires can not be firmly fastened, and
the bird will " wabble."
If you have the fleshy body before you, or even the measure-
ments of it, it will be easy enough to reproduce its form and
size. It is desirable to copy the form of the natural body as
closely as possible, which in many cases necessitates the use of
a long needle to sew through and through it, in reproducing
certain hollows and corresponding elevations. Professor Dyche
lays great stress upon this point, and always makes the false body
of a bird with such care and attention to every detail of form that
when the skin is put over it it fits perfectly, the feathers fall
into position and lie properly, no extra filling being necessary
anywhere save at the tail ; and, what is more, he considers that
it is unnecessary to wind down the plumage with thread. The
most life-like snowy owl I have ever seen is one which Profes-
sor Dyche mounted for me as a practical demonstration of his
method, the virtue of which was thus handsomely proven. The
skin was the same as a fresh one, having been made less than a
year, and the excelsior body was made to fit it without the aid of
measurements. As the result of repeated ocular demonstration,
I am convinced that Professor Dy die's method of making every
body with extreme care, as to form and details, is well worthy
of universal adoption.
The necessity of removing the tendons from the legs of all
large birds has already been mentioned. When this has been
done, the wiring of the leg is an easy matter, for the wire will
take the place of the tendon so perfectly that there will be no
outward sign of its presence. Use as large leg- wires as you can
without disfiguring the leg of the bird.
When any animal is mounted in a walking attitude, the foot
which is represented in the act of leaving the ground must always
have its centre well elevated, and only the toes touching. This
being the case, surely no intelligent taxidermist will ever be
guilty of so unpardonable an offence against the eye as to run
the supporting-iron straight down from the ball of the foot to
a
w
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MOUNTING LARGE BIUDS. 193
the pedestal, with a ghastly section of it exposed to view. N<>
matter how you manage it, the iron must follow the bones of
the foot until it reaches the toes, and t Jen it can be bent down
to a perpendicular line and passed through the pedestal, alicayn
out of , sight.
In all but the largest birds, the leg- wires are fastened in the
body in precisely the same way as described and illustrated in
the previous chapter, except that it requires stouter pliers and
more strength to bend them and clinch them firmly in the body.
In inserting the leg- wires in the artificial body, be sure to enter
them about the middle of the body, on each side, and not near
the tail, as nearly all beginners are prone to do. This is by all
odds the commonest and worst fault in mounted birds that fall
short of perfection. It arises from the fact that the beginner
makes the mistake of entering the leg-wires at the same point
where the bird's humerus joins the pelvis, which is too far back
by just one-third of the length of the entire body ! The hume-
rus is not represented on your wire at all, and the wire should
enter the body precisely where the knee-joint comes in the Uriny
bird. The flesh and bone of the thigh is made up (or should be,
at least) on the artificial body, not on your leg-wire. Lay out a
dead bird in a walking attitude, or study a skeleton (see Fig.
70), and see where the knee-joint comes ; then you will never
again be in danger of spoiling a bird by making its legs come
out from under its tail.
In mounting large birds, the sizes of the wires I have used were
a,s follows : Great horned owl, No. 8 or 9 ; bald eagle, No. 7 or 8 ;
peacock, No. 7 ; great blue heron, No. 6 ; sandhill crane, No. 5.
An ostrich or emu requires a manikin constructed on the same
principles as that built for the tiger, except that each leg rod
should have two iron squares instead of one. The upper ex-
tivmity of the log-rod is clamped tightly to one square, with two
nuts, as usual ; but in addition to this there should be a second
square with a hole in its short arm large enough for the smooth
rod to slip through, and this should be screwed to the body
board as low down as the anatomy of the bird will alloxv. The
object of this second iron is to prevent the bipedal specimen
from swaying and leaning over, as it would otherwise be very
apt to do.
13
194 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
Inasmuch as the legs of an ostrich or emu always require to
be cut open and completely skinned, the manikin method is per-
fectly adapted to their wants. If the skin is so shrunken that
it requires vigorous stretching, its body must be stuffed with
straw after the neck and legs have been made and joined to
a centre-board, precisely as directed for long-haired mammals
above medium size. I may also remark in this connection that
I have seen both the complete skin and skeleton of a large
ostrich preserved and mounted to stand side by side, but I
pitied the operator when he had to make a full set of bones for
the legs and feet, and a wooden skull with the horny shell of
the beak fastened upon it. At one stage of the proceedings the
outlook for the skin seemed anything but promising, and on
the whole I would not advise anyone save an expert to attempt
a similar task.
MOUNTING BIKDS WITH WINGS SPREAD.— In the first place, each
wing must have a wire large enough to adequately support it.
This should be straight, bright, well-oiled, and filed sharp at
both ends. One end is to be inserted inside the skin, passed
along next to the wing-bones as far as the carpal joint, from
thence it is forced on as far as possible between the skin and
the under surface of the metacarpal bones until it emerges from
the feathers not far from the end of the fleshy portion of the
wing. The wing must be so straight that the wire can be
slipped through it freely backward and forward. It must next
be passed through the artificial body at the point where the
upper end of the humerus is attached to the coracoid in the
complete skeleton, and very firmly clinched in the same way as
described for the leg- wires. Then lay the bird upon its back,
place the wing exactly in position, bend the wing- wires so they
will fit snugly against the wing-bones, and tie them firmly
down. After that, the middle joint of each wing is to be poi-
soned, stuffed with fine tow, and sewn up neatly. Of course the
wings can not be given their correct elevation and pose until
the bird is placed firmly upon its temporary perch, unless it is
to be represented as flying.
Now is the time to properly dispose of the feet. If the
talons are to be grasping any kind of prey, the object must be
placed at once, before the feet begin to dry. If the bird is to
MOUNTING LARGE BIRDS.
195
be in full flight, they must be drawn up, clinched, and almost
concealed in the feathers. To keep the feathers of a spread
wing in place while the specimen is drying, thrust a long,
sharpened wire into the body under the wing, and another on
top, bend both until they conform to the curve of the wing,
twist their outer ends together, and then slip under each wire a
long, narrow strip of paste-
board. Such a specimen
requires constant watching
lest something get awry by
accident, and dry so. The
winding of a bird with its
wings spread, to say noth-
ing of laying the plumage,
is a difficult and delicate
matter, and the chances are
that he who takes the great-
est pains will produce the
best bird.
MAKING THE NECK OF A
HERON. — Ordinarily the an-
atomy of a bird is well con-
cealed by its feathers, but to
this rule the neck of a heron
is a marked exception. In
this remarkable member
there is room for the most
ambitious operator to show
his skill. The neck is very
long, very thin and flat, the
joints of the vertebras often show very plainly, and the wind-
pipe has a way of shifting over the sides of the neck in a most
free-and-easy way. (See Fig. 53.) If you wish to mount a bird
that will show your skill to the best advantage, by all means
choose a heron, and mount him in a stooping posture, with his
head thrown back, in the act of spearing a fish with his sharp
beak.
One of the artistic triumphs of the New York exhibition of
the Society of American Taxidermists was Mr. F. S. Webster's
FIG. 53.— Cast of the Neck and Windpipe of a
Heron.
196 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
' Wounded Heron," which was awarded a specialty medal as
being1 one of the best pieces in the entire exhibition. It was
presented by Mr. Webster to the National Museum, for the
Society's exhibit, and is represented in Plate XVI.
Ordinarily you can make a good neck for a heron by taking-
two wires of suitable length, winding fine tow very smoothly
and evenly around each one until it has attained very nearly the
required thickness of the neck, then putting the two together
and winding a thin, even layer of fine, soft tow around both.
This doubles the width of the neck, without materially increas-
ing its thickness. The necks of some herons are so excessively
wide and thin that it requires three tow-wrapped wires wound
together thus to give the necessary width. All this winding-
should be done quite firmly, and when finished, if the neck is of
the right size, it should be wrapped with spool cotton from end
to end to make it keep its shape. One of the neck-wires
should be thrust through the skull, but the end of the other
should be bent down, and (if the beak is to be closed) passed
out of the throat, into the mouth, one-third of the way to the
tip of the beak.
If, however, you wish to produce a prize bird and challenge
criticism, then make a neck which will show the joints of the
vertebrae, and show them plainly and strikingly. Now there
may be a dozen different ways in which that could be done, but
the best is to make the neck over a hard skeleton that will
show its joints willy-nilly. Your best plan is to clean the neck
vertebrae without disjointing them, tie your neck-wire firmly
underneath them, wrap with fine tow to replace the flesh, bind
down with thread, and cover all at the last moment with clay.
The windpipe is easily reproduced by wrapping fine tow
around a small annealed wire, and then sewing it in its place on
the neck. If you have not the cervical vertebrae, the next best
thing is to make them roughly and quickly out of wood, wire
them together, and use as you would the real bones. The rea-
son why this is necessary to success is that it is very difficult
to make a wire bend in angles instead of curves after it has
been wrapped with tow and inserted in the neck of the bird.
SETTING THE EYES. — On this point I have always been at war
with most of my taxidermic friends. They insist that it is not
MOUNTING LARGE RIHDS. 197
Iwst to insert the eyes in a bird as soon as it is finished other-
wise, but leave the bird to dry without them. Afterward, they
insert wet cotton, soften the eyelids, and then insert the clay
backing1 and the eyes. They claim that this is necessary to
prevent the skin from being1 drawn away from the eye by
shrinkage in the general drying.
I hold that it is best to set the eyes at once, before the bird
dries, in order to secure the greatest degree of elasticity in
shaping the eyelids, and thereby have a more perfect mastery
of the situation. But having seen my friends secure as good
results by their method as I do by mine, I naturally conclude
that it is only a matter of personal preference, and either way
is good enough.
CHAPTEE XXIV.
CLEANING THE PLUMAGE OF BIRDS.
I SHALL never forget how vainly I sought, when a lonesome
and isolated amateur, to find somewhere in print some useful
information about how to remove grease, dirt, and blood-stains
from the plumage of birds. I remember well my disgust and
anger at the makers of the so-called " complete " manuals of
taxidermy that left me groping in Egyptian darkness on that
subject, and most others also ; and I registered a solemn vow
that should I ever write on taxidermy I would do my best to
afford some practical information on cleaning the plumage of
birds.
As has been previously stated, the time to clean the plumage
of a bird is while you are making up the fresh skin (Chapter
VI.), before the skin has been laid away to dry, before the blood
dries and imparts a,permanent stain (to white feathers, at least),
and before the oil has had a chance to ooze out into the feathers
to gather dirt, and presently form a nasty, yellow oil-cake upon
the skin. In cleaning the skin of a fat or oily bird, scrape all
the grease from the inside of the skin, and absorb it with corn
meal or plaster Paris. Scrape the skin until it looks as if the
feathers are about to fall out, until no more oil is raised, and
then you may call it clean. When you have done this, you need
not fear that any oil will ever exude upon the feathers.
FRESH SPECIMENS. — If a freshly killed bird has blood upon its
plumage, separate the bloody feathers from the others, lift them
on your fingers, and with warm water and a sponge gently
sponge them off. Give the blood a little time to soften, and
when the feathers are as clean as you can get them with water,
wipe them as dry as you can, then sponge them over" with clear
spirits of turpentine or benzine, and absorb this with plaster
CLEANING THE PLUMAGE OF BIRDS. 199
Paris. The manner of managing plaster Paris will be described
in detail in another paragraph.
Very often the plumage of a freshly killed swan, gull, or duck,
becomes so covered with dirt, blood, and grease by the time it
reaches the taxidermist that it is a sight to behold. Never
mind if it is, you can make it as good as new, in every respect,
so far as cleanliness is concerned. The thing to do is to skin
the bird, and clean the skin before either mounting it or mak-
ing it up as a skin. The cleaning is often made easier, however,
by hastily filling the loose skin with excelsior or tow, to give a
firm foundation to work upon when cleaning the plumage.
If you have no turpentine, as will probably happen to you
many a time when you least expect it, take some warm water,
as warm as you can bear your hand in, rub some castile soap in
it, and with a sponge, or a soft cotton cloth, wash the soiled
feathers. Do not scrub them as you would a greasy floor, and
utterly destroy the perfect set of the feathers, but sponge them
with the grain, as far as possible, treating them as a compact
layer. Now, if you have turpentine, wipe the feathers as dry as
you can, and give them a sponging with that, for they will come
out better from the plaster Paris than otherwise. When the
plaster is put upon feathers that are wet with water, it acts too
quickly in its drying, and the feathers are often dried before
they have had time to become fluffy as in life. But if yon have
no turpentine, you must finish without it. Whichever liquid
you use, at the finish fill the feathers full of plaster Paris, and
almost immediately lift the bird and beat it gently to knock out
the saturated plaster. That done, put on more plaster, filling
the feathers full of it down to their very roots, and presently
whip that out also. By the time you have made the third ap-
plication, the feathers are almost dry, and the plaster falls out
almost dry also. Now is your time to whip the feathers with a
supple switch, or a light filler of stiff wire, to make each be-
draggled feather fluff up at the base of its shaft, and spread its
web for all it is worth. This treatment is also vitally nerrss.-n-y
to knock the plaster out of the plumage. Work the feathers
with your long forceps, lifting them up a bunch at a time and
letting them fall back into place. By this time the plaster flies
out in a cloud of white dust, and the whipping of the feathers
200 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
must be kept up without intermission until the plaster is all out.
If any plaster remains in the feathers, you may count with cer-
tainty that it will always be sifting- out upon the pedestal, and,
what is even worse, if the plumage is black, or dark-colored, it
will impart to it a gray and dusty appearance.
Caution. — Remember that if you leave the first application of
plaster, or even the second, too long1 in the feathers it will " set "
or harden there, and make you wish you were dead before you
get it out.
DKY SKINS. — The hardest subjects to deal with are old, dry
skins. While fresh, fat is merely so much clean oil smeared on the
feathers. An old, dry duck, goose, swan, penguin, auk, or alba-
tross skin is liable to have the feathers of the breast and abdo-
men all caked together in a solid mass of rancid, yellow grease,
to which time has added a quantity of museum dirt. In mount-
ing one of the charming- specimens of this too numerous class,
it is not always safe to clean the feathers before inserting- the
body. There is dang-er that the skin will go to pieces. For
this, and other reasons, the skin should be scraped clean inside,
poisoned, furnished with a body, and sewn up before you at-
tempt to clean the feathers.
When feathers are badly caked with old, dry grease, it is an
excellent plan to apply a jet of steam to the afflicted region,
which quickly warms and moistens the grease, and allows the
turpentine to cut it in less than half the time it would otherwise
require. There is nothing that starts dry grease as quickly as
a little well-directed steam ; but steam is a powerful shrinking-
agency, and it must be used with judgment.
Usually an old skin is so dirty that it requires to be " plas-
tered " all over. If you have no steam, attack the greasy por-
tions first with warm water (but no soap), to warm up the grease
and soften it. Time and patience are both necessary. Next,
wipe off the water, and with a wad of cotton cloth, tow, or cot-
ton batting, dip from your dish of turpentine, and apply it as a
wash upon the feathers, always rubbing with the grain, of
course. When, after repeated applications, you see that the
turpentine has dissolved the grease to quite an extent, go rap-
idly over the remainder of the bird, then lay it down upon a
sheet of heavy paper, upon its back, and cover it completely with
CLEANING THE PLUMAGE OF BITIDS. 201
plaster Paris. It takes two or three quarts to do this usually,
and for a swan it requires a pailful.
As soon as the plaster has had time to absorb the greasy tur-
pentine, which it does in about a minute, lift the bird from its
burial-place, and holding1 it head upward hit it several sharp
blows with a light stick to knock the plaster out of the feathers.
Devote from three to five minutes to this, then examine the
feathers and see whether they are perfectly clean. Most likely
they are not, if it is a case of old grease, and a repetition of the
dose is necessary. Start again with your wash of turpentine
and do precisely as before (without the use of any water). If this
does not bring the feathers out clean and white from roots to tips,
then give it a third going over, with unabated vigor and thor-
oughness. The third time is usually " the charm," even with the
worst cases. This time the plaster must be thoroughly beaten
out of the feathers, even if takes you an hour to accomplish it.
All this is rather disagreeable work. Of course you will put
on old clothes and get out doors to windward of your bird while
beating it, so that the plaster will fly off upon some other fellow.
Soft feathers may be handled more carelessly than the stiffer sorts.
Of course great care must be taken to not separate the web of the
tail and wing feathers, nor to break the shafts of even the small
ones. Beware getting any of the body feathers twisted during
this operation, or they will not lie down where they belong.
Benzine can be used instead of turpentine in cleaning plum-
age, but it is too volatile, and evaporates too quickly to render
the best service.
It is practically useless to attempt to remove clotted blood
from the feathers of old dry skins. Even if by persistent effort
the blood itself is removed, it leaves a lasting stain upon the
feathers, and they are also permanently awry. The universal
custom with taxidermists in such case is to obey the (para-
phrased) scriptural injunction — if a feather offend thee, pluck
it out. If this course leaves a vacancy in the plumage, steal a
perfect feather from some suitable portion of the bird's body,
and glue it fast in the place of the missing1 one. Fortunately,
however, collectors have about ceased to make up skins to dry
with blood upon them, and there is not much trouble to appre-
hend hereafter from that source.
CHAPTEE XXV.
MOUNTING REPTILES.
OPHIDIA : The Serpents.— There are several methods of mount-
ing1 snakes, but only one that I can recommend. Such pro-
cesses as ramming1 a rubber-like snake skin full of sawdust, or
cotton, or tow, are to be mentioned only to be condemned. In
my opinion, the only proper way to mount a serpent is to
make a manikin of tow, carefully wound on a wire and after-
ward shaped with thread, and cover it with clay at the finish.
It is necessary to attach small wires to the body-wire at given
intervals, so that they can be passed down through the pedes-
tal, and afford a means by which a finished specimen may be
drawn down and made to lie natiirally.
A manikin for a large snake, like an anaconda or python, is
best made of excelsior, and its exact form secured by sewing-
through it with a needle. In the field notes printed in Chapter
,111. something may be learned of the form of the python.
If a snake is " stuffed," it stretches the scales apart most un-
naturally, and never looks like life. For this reason, the clay-
covered manikin is necessary, in order that any excess of skin
may be modeled down upon it, and the scales be made to form
an unbroken covering.
LACERTILIA: The Lizards.— With the exception of the iguana,
the gila monster, mastigure, and a few others, the lizards are so
small and slender, and have tails so tapering out into thin air
that they are altogether too small to be mounted by the ordi-
nary methods of taxidermy. The finest method ever devised
for the preservation and display of small reptiles and batrachi-
ans is that adopted by the Museum of Comparative Zoology,
Cambridge, Mass. Each specimen is preserved in clear spirits
in a jar by itself, and instead of being dropped in head first to
MOUNTING REPTILES.
203
sink or swim, and tie itself into a bow-knot if it can, the reptile
is placed (in the flesh) on a thin, rectangular slab of plaster
Paris or cement, of the tint best suited to the display of the
specimen. The object is placed
in a life-like attitude and held
in place by threads which pass
through holes in the slab and
tie the feet down securely.
The accompanying1 illustration
(Fig. 54), drawn from a speci-
men, and the following de-
scription, both of which have
been kindly furnished me by
Mr. Samuel Garman, Curator
of Reptiles, Museum of Com-
parative Zoology, will enable
any intelligent preparator to
adopt this admirable method:
" It was in 1875 we began to
mount the reptiles and ba-
trachiaus of the Museum of
Comparative Zoology on tab-
lets, in alcohol. Before that
date they had been stuffed and
dried, a method which proved
rather unsatisfactory, especially
so in regard to color, and the
shrivelling of digits and tails.
However- varied at first, the
appearance soon became uni-
form and dusty. Mounting in
the alcohol does away with the
most serious objections ; we
can give the specimens life-like
attitudes, or arrange them in
groups as if playing, courting, or fighting ; and the liquid height-
ens their beauty, as the water does that of the pebble at the s- -.•!-
shore, while ravages of insects are entirely out of the question.
" The tablets are made of plaster Paris, or if a harder one with
Fio. 54.— Method of Mounting Alcoholic Rep-
tiles at the Museum of Comparative Zouloiry.
204 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING
finer finish is desired, of cement mixed with water and spread
011 a glass plate to set. Holes are bored through them wher-
ever necessary to fasten the specimen, which is simply tied on.
With the tints used in fresco painting they are colored to suit.
Experiments now under way convince me there is less fading
on plates of certain colors than on the white ones. For black
tablets, common slate is good. A mixture of plaster and ce-
ment makes a fine quality."
The larger lizards are generally so round and plump-bodied
they may very properly be mounted with tow and clay legs, and
a body-filling of clean and soft chopped tow, the same as small
mammals. If one is encountered which has a high, sharp,
spinal crest, which cannot be reproduced with loose filling^, then
it is necessary to make the legs and tail, wire all together, and
make an excelsior manikin in two halves, so that each side may
be inserted in the body independently, and then the two may
be sewed together and covered with clay as necessary.
At Professor Ward's celebrated establishment I once saw Mr.
Webster remove the entire skeleton from a Hatteria punctata, a
rare New Zealand lizard about sixteen inches in length, replace
the leg bones and skull with wooden counterfeits, and success-
fully mount the skin. This was quite a feat, and was the only
instance of the kind that ever came to my knowledge. The chief
difficulty lay in removing1 the skull from the skin, which grew
tightly upon it, and in successfully replacing it with a wooden
imitation.
CKOCODILIA: TJie Crocodiles and Alligators. — These great sau-
rians — thick-hided, case-hardened, and always fat — require no
carefully made manikins, no clay save in the small, ones, nor
very gentle treatment of any kind, unless the specimens happen
to be young and tender. Small crocodilians should be mounted
in the same way as the larger lizards, using clay next to the skin
of the body and tail. I once achieved success with a tiny alli-
gator, and delighted its bereaved owner, by filling it with clay
on a core of excelsior, and modeling the form into perfect shape.
Large saurians should be mounted on the same general plan
as wolves and small bears, viz., by cutting the leg-irons long,
passing the inner ends through a rather small centre board,
bonding' them down to the wood, and fastening with staples. Of
MOUNTING REPTILES. 2Ur>
course the leg-irons must fasten underneath the pedestal by
means of nuts. The legs are made of tow, and so is the tail,
which must have in its centre a stout iron rod, cut about four
inches shorter than the end of the tail to allow for shrinkage. At
two or three points equidistant from the end of the tail, and
from each other, fasten a stout wire to the tail rod, so that win n
the specimen is finished these wires can be passed down through
holes bored in the pedestal, and used to draw the tail down
tightly and hold it there. If this is forgotten the tail will spring
up in spite of you, and show daylight underneath, which never
happens with the tail of a living saurian.
As to attitude, one or two hints will suffice. A live saurian,
either crawling or at rest, nearly always carries his legs well up
to his body. Do not spread his legs far out, but bend them up
rather close to the animal's body, as if he expected to use them
to walk with. The body should always rest down upon the
ground. Give the tail two or three curves sidewise to relieve its
stiffness. The head should be held well up, but the elevation
should be given by the neck alone, with the head itself in ;>-
horizontal position, turned a trifle to the right or left to avoid
extreme stiffness in the attitude.
"When your large alligator has been put together, suspend it
from the ceiling, bottom upward, and stuff the thick part of the
tail, the body, and the neck with straw. Begin at the end of the
tail, and fill and sew up until the head is reached. It is neces-
sary to use stout and very sharp glover's needles of large size in
sewing through the horny- hide of an old saurian, and the thread
should be the best of linen twine, doubled and waxed until it is
in the best possible condition for holding. Sometimes a skin
is so horny it is necessary to pierce holes for the needle witli
an awl. The shrinking power of a big saurian is something
fearful to behold, therefore prepare your seams accordingly.
The centre-board of the body should be placed low enough
that two screw-bolts, six inches long, may be put through the
pedestal from underneath, and screwed into the board to bring
the body of the animal down upon the pedestal as closely us
possible, and also to hold it more securely. Of course, each leg-
iron must pass downward through the foot, and fasten v» ith a
nut underneath the pedestal.
206 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
The tongue of a saurian is not free, but the skin may be re-
moved from its upper surface, the flesh replaced with clay, and
the skin sewed down again. The color of the tongue and roof
of the mouth of a saurian is pale yellow, a little lighter than
Naples yellow, but never pink. In young specimens the inside
of the mouth is white.
Bear in mind this fact, that the eye of an alligator or crocodile
is of a dark greenish color, and the pupil is vertical.
The thin serrated scales, which form the crest of the tail, must
be clamped firmly between thick pieces of card-board while they
are drying, so that they will retain their proper shape and
erectness, for otherwise they will curl up and become very un-
sightly.
After a saurian has dried properly, and has been " mached," it
should be varnished all over with a coat of white varnish and
turpentine, to bring out the colors.
If the teeth of an alligator need to be cleaned and whitened,
brush them with muriatic acid, washing it off again almost im-
mediately with plenty of clear water.
CHELONIA : The Turtles. — This group embraces the sea-turtles,
having the fore limbs developed as long, flat, triangular flippers,
with large head, small under shell, and with head and flippers
non-retractile,— the terrapins, soft-shelled turtles, and tortoises.
Of the large, sea-going species, our ocean waters produce the
huge leather-back or harp-turtle, the loggerhead, next in size,
the green turtle and the hawksbill, which last yields the valu-
able tortoise-shell of commerce. To the taxidermist, a fresh
hawksbill to be mounted is a thing of beauty and a joy forever;
the smooth and succulent green turtle is also a welcome guest ;
the big loggerhead is a serious affair, and the huge, lumbering,
greasy 800-pound leather-back is a first class calamity. Shun
him, unless there is plenty of money behind him. I once had
the misfortune to be chief mourner over a leather-back which
pulled down 940 pounds dead weight — mostly oil.
"We conquered, but Bozzaris fell,"
vowing that neither gold nor glory (neither of which is yielded
by Sphargis coriacea) should ever again tempt us to " strike oil "
in that manner. The soft and gelatinous shell of that monster
K-
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EH
W
J
CO
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K
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2
13
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MOUNTING REPTILES. 207
dripped clear oil for three months, and actually yielded sev-
eral gallons.
Fig. 19 shows the under-side of a turtle, and the dotted
line indicates where the cut has been made in the skin near the
posterior edge of the plastron, where the shell bridge that
unites the upper with the under shell has been sawn through
with a small saw. The process of skinning such a subject has
been already described, and the process of mounting is to be
carried out on precisely the same general principles as described
and illustrated in the mounting of mammals with long hair,
with but slight variations.
After the legs and neck have been made with tow, the tow
wrapping should be covered with a quarter of an inch of soft
clay, so the skin can afterward be modeled down upon it, either
smoothly or wrinkled, as in life. The body should be stuffed
with straw to keep the shell from collapsing while drying. The
divided portions of the shell must then be joined and wired
together firmly with soft brass wires passed through small
holes, as shown in the figure. Of course, the cuts in the skin
must be sewn up neatly but firmly.
"When the specimen has been placed on its pedestal, it then
remains to shape the legs, neck, and feet, which the soft clay
underneath renders quite easy. Folds and wrinkles in the skin
must be exaggerated, to provide for what is sure to disappear
by shrinkage in drying.
CHAPTEE XXVI.
MOUNTING FISHES.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. — Judging from specimens generally,
it would seem that taxidermists, the world over, either do not
know how to mount fish specimens with the same degree of ex-
cellence as mammals and birds, or else they are universally
slighted by intention. Certain it is, that in nearly every large
zoological museum the stuffed fishes are the least attractive,
and the least like life of all the vertebrates. In many instances
the reptiles are not far behind in unsightliness, although as a
rule they are a little more life-like than the fishes. In only one
natural history museum out of twenty-seven have I found a col-
lection of stuffed fishes which surpassed in number and quality
of specimens the collection of birds and mammals, and formed
the most attractive feature of the entire museum. That fish
collection is to be seen in the Government Museum at Madras,
India.
The specimens were all mounted while fresh from the ocean,
which, of course, has been a great advantage to the taxidermist.
I was somewhat surprised to learn that the taxidermist in ques-
tion was an Indian native, named P. Anthony Pillay, because
East Indian natives are, almost without exception, very indif-
ferent taxidermists.
None of the specimens are mounted on standards, but either
lie flat in table cases, or, if too large for that, hang against the
wall. The common scaly fishes always lie upon one side, usu-
ally the right, with tail curved upward.
Mr. Pillay assured me that the exquisite smoothness of his
specimens was due to the use of silk cotton as a filling material,
plucked from the pod and cleaned by hand. His scale fishes
and sharks were very life-like, but his rays and ray-like Rhino-
MOUNTING FISHES. . 209
fxifi were somewhat faulty. Being filled with fibrous material,
they lacked that extreme flatness so characteristic of fishes of
this type.
Numerous methods for the preparation of fishes have been
devised. In the collection in the National Museum made by
the Society of American Taxidermists there is a series of six
specimens, representing1 five different methods, mostly bad.
One is a fish carved in wood and painted ; another is a flimsy
paper cast of Dutch extraction ; a third is a painted plaster
cast ; the fourth is a half fish, or fish medallion, and the fifth is
an entire stuffed fish. It is necessary to add, however, that the
last -mentioned specimen falls far short of properly represent-
ing its class — the most common of all in museums. In dispos-
ing of this subject it is not my purpose to waste time in the
discussion of obsolete and valueless methods, but to describe
only those of practical utility.
MOUNTING SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZED FISHES WITH SCALES.—
The process of skinning a fish has been described in a pre-
vious chapter, and on this subject but few other points remain
to be noticed. These are the following :
From some fishes the scales fall off so very easily while they
are being skinned and mounted, it is necessary to wipe the
specimen diy, and before starting to remove the skin, paste a
piece of thin but tough writing-paper over the whole fish ex-
cepting the fins, and let it dry before proceeding further. With
a pen, line out the course of the opening cut, and make a mark
across it here and there to guide you in joining the edges again
after mounting. This paper covering will fully protect the
scales from displacement, and it is to remain on until the
mounting is completed, when its removal is easily accom-
plished with water and a sponge.
On the great majority of scaled fishes, however, the scales
are sufficiently persistent that the above is unnecessary. But
keep. the fish wet while you are at work upon it, and handle it
with care and delicacy. If you let the scales get dry, their
edges begin at once to curl up, which must not be permitted.
It is generally of great advantage to allow the skin of a fish
to lie over night in spirits (two parts of ninety-five per cent, al-
cohol to one of water) for the sake of curing and toughening
14
210 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
the integument, and curing whatever particles of flesh may
chance to remain in the skull.
After having removed the skin, it must be cleaned most
carefully. With a keen-bladed knife, pare and scrape off all
the adherent flesh from the skin, cut out the gills, and remove
the flesh from the interior of the skull, and the base of the fins.
Of course the eyes must come out also. "With a stout pair of
scissors trim off the projecting bases of the rays of the dorsal
and anal fins, so that the fin itself may set squarely upon the
top of the centre-board.
I will now describe, step by step, the entire process of mount-
ing a fish by what I consider the simplest, easiest, and most
practical method known. Be advised in the beginning, how-
ever, that you can not mount fishes on nice brass standards with
nothing at all in the way of special materials and tools. You
must have an assortment of hard brass wire, Nos. 3 to 10, a
hack-saw, some brass rosettes, a small die for cutting threads
on brass wire, and taps of corresponding sizes for cutting
threads in the brass nuts and rosettes. The outfit is by no
means expensive, but it is indispensable if you wish to mount
your specimens on standards, and thus have them show off to
the finest advantage.
1. Procure a piece of soft wood, pine preferred, and with the
skinned body of the fish before you, whittle the wood down to
the general shape of the body, but one-fourth smaller in actual
size. In Plate IV. the outline a, b, c represents the wooden
centre-board, which is really the foundation upon which the
mounted specimen is to be constructed.
2. Prepare two small brass standards (e, e), and screw the up-
per end of each firmly into a gimlet-hole bored into the centre-
board at d, d. At the lower end of each standard the thread
should be cut for a little more than an inch of its length,
and a turned brass rosette screwed on, to rest on top of the
pedestal, and hold the rod from slipping down through the
hole. Underneath the pedestal a square nut is screwed on
tightly. These rods should be exactly perpendicular, and the
axis of the fish (an imaginary line running lengthwise through
the centre of the bulk), should be as nearly as possible hori-
zontal. A fish mounted with its tail too high in the air seems
MOUNTING FISHES. 211
to be taking a header, and when the reverse is the case, it sug-
gests a ship sinking stern foremost.
3. Having thoroughly cleaned the inside of the skin, anoint
it liberally with arsenical soap, or if you have not that, with a
plentiful sprinkling of powdered arsenic.
4. For the fourth step — filling — I shall describe two very
different processes, advising the beginner to make a fair trial of
both, and then adopt the one he succeeds best with.
The filling which I infinitely prefer for a fish is clay and
chopped tow, mixed together, and used as stiff as may be to work
well. Clay which is too soft when used shrinks as the excess of
water dries out of it, and is liable to leave an uneven surface.
With a flat modeling-tool, coat the centre-board evenly with the
clay until you have reproduced the form and size of the fleshy
body of the fish. Then put the skin over this, press it down
firmly to exclude all air-bubbles, working it from the back down
ward. When you find that the skin fits perfectly and without
any drawing or straining, begin at the tail and sew the skin to-
gether, making, as you proceed, a perfect finish of the specimen.
Draw the edges closely together, and the more perfectly the
scales can be made to hide the opening the better.
The other filling process is to use fine, soft tow, chopped up
finely. With a goodly quantity of tow before you, open the fish
skin, and with your forceps insert a layer of tow all along the
back, and also on the side which lies next to the table. Then
put the centre-board in its place, while the skin still lies before
you, and with the forceps distribute an equal quantity of tow
between the upper side of the board and the skin. Thus a per-
fect and even cushion of tow is provided to lie between the skin
and the board at all points save below. Begin at the tail, and
with your needle and thread sew up the skin for an inch or two :
then with your small forceps or filler, stuff to the right size and
shape the portion that has been sewn up. That done, sew up
another section, and stuff as before, proceeding thus until the
head is reached and the entire fish has been filled and shaped.
Notches nmst be cut in the skin at the points where the brass
rods enter it.
All this time the fish has been kept wet so that the fins are
soft and elastic, and the scales are perfectly smooth. The fins
2L2 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
must now be spread, and each one enclosed between two bits of
pasteboard cut to the right shape, and held firmly together by
sticking pins through them around the edge of the fin. Do not
on any account stick pins through the fins, or you will afterward
have the trouble of filling up the pin-holes. Force the pins
through the two thicknesses of pasteboard with your small
pliers, and whatever may be the shape, or size, or position of a
fin, you must so shape your pasteboard that the fin will be
spread, and have the same position it would on a live fish.
6. The last thing at this stage is to mix together equal quan-
tities of white varnish and turpentine, sponge off the fish care-
fully, removing every particle of clay, tow, or dirt, and varnish
it all over. This prevents the scales from curling up when they
dry, and it also goes far toward fixing the colors of the fish.
The fins are to be varnished afterward when they get dry.
7. While the fish is drying, the eyes should be prepared.
Every one knows that the eyes of different genera of fishes vary
in shape, size, and color, to as great a degree as do the eyes of
quadrupeds. For mounted specimens, one of two things may be
done ; insert a conventional silver or golden glass eye, or else
keep on hand a lot of uncolored fish eyes, and paint each pair
from nature, in oil colors of course, to suit the particular speci-
men it is to adorn. When the paint has had time to dry and
harden, cover it with two or three coats of shellac to protect the
colors from any changes which might be effected by the material
in which the eye is to be set. If the coating of paint is left un-
protected, it is very apt to undergo chemical changes, and the
eye may thereby be ruined.
8. The eye may be set in clay or putty provided none of the
setting material is to be exposed. If the glass eye is smaller than
the opening, which is very often the case, set it in fine papier-
mache, which must be nicely modeled around the glass, and
afterward coated with shellac, and painted.
10. The subject of painting fishes will be considered in a
separate chapter.
Simple as it may appear, and really is, the above processes
may be applied with slight modifications to even the largest
scale fishes, and to the sharks and saw-fishes. Such large sub-
jects as the jew-fish require strong iron rods for standards, and
MOUNTING FISHES.
213
the skin may either be mounted over a manikin, made of excel-
sior tied down upon a central beam, or it may be stuffed with
soft straw, which, considering
the great thickness of the skin
and scales, is quite satisfac-
tory.
MOUNTING FISH MEDAL-
LIONS.— A fish with but. one
side mounted and exhibited
may be called a fish medal-
lion. It may lie flat in a table-
case, or be screwed to the
back of an upright case, or it
may even be set up on stan-
dards fastened to it at the
back. As a specimen, either
PIG. 50.— Cross-Section.
to prepare or exhibit, it has
its advantages, and I will
briefly describe my process.
AVe will suppose that our
fish is a fresh subject, or an
entire specimen from alcohol.
The first thing1 is to procure a
pine board of proper thick-
ness, lay the fish flat upon it,
and with a pencil mark out
its outline. Although only
one side of the fish is to sh<>\\\
it is desirable to mount a lit-
tle more than precisely one-
half of it. Therefore, select
FIG. 55.— Medallion of Yellow Pike. , -, • ^ ITT i i
the side to be displayed, an» I
remove the skin from the other to within a short distance of
the median line of the back and abdomen. This extra margin
214 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
of skin is to give the skin an appearance of entirety and ro-
tundity, rather than flatness such as would be the case if an
exact half were represented. The head of the fish must be
sawn through with a fine saw, and, of course, the observance of
the directions already given will leave the dorsal and anal fins
on the portion to be exhibited.
Having carefully skinned, cleaned, and preserved the portion
to be> exhibited, the centre-board is cut out with a short bevel
on the inside, and on the other the full shape of one side of the
fish. When this fits the skin properly, the right quantity of
clay is put upon it, the skin is then put on, and fastened at the
back according to circumstances. With a small fish, the edges
of the skin may be sewn together from top to bottom, across
the exposed surface of the centre board, but with large speci-
mens it is best to nail the edges to the board.
MOUNTING CARTILAGINOUS FISHES : Sharks, rays, saw-fish, etc.—
The only failures I have ever made during my thirteen years of
taxidermic work have been with subjects of this class. I call
them failures because, after taking infinite pains and mounting
my specimens to the complete satisfaction of all concerned, the
best ones, the very ones I had considered most perfect when
finished, for two or three years afterward continued to shrink
and shrink, until the skin burst open, and the tail and fins
warped out of shape by the same process until it was madden-
ing to look upon them. »
I once spent a week of diligent labor in mounting over a
clay-covered excelsior manikin the skin of a ten-and-a-half foot
gray shark (Hexanchus griseus), which came to me in the flesh.
It was a beautiful specimen, and I mounted it according to
elaborate measurements, and a cast of the head. The result
was all that could be desired. Three years later that shark
was a sight to behold. Around the body, just back of the gill
openings, the skin had burst open in a crack an inch wido.
The tail had been ripped open by the terrible strain of shrink-
age, so had the seam underneath the belly, and at first the dam-
age seemed beyond repair. We did repair it, however, very
fairly, but to me the specimen has ever since been an eyesore.
By the bitterest of experiences I have learned that a shark,
ray, or saw-fish is bound to keep shrinking and shrinking, in
MOUNTING FISHES. 215
both length and circumference, from the day it is finished to
the crack of doom. The fins and tail ivill warp and twist out of
shape, and I defy any man to prevent it. Since finding it im-
possible to mount a fish of this class substantially, and have it
retain its original size, I have adopted a plan which allows
shrinkage. The rod which supports the tail is fastened to the
centre-board by two staples so loosely that when the strain of
shrinkage comes upon it, it will gradually slip through the
staples and allow the specimen to shorten instead of bursting.
It is best not to mount a shark too well. Stuff it with soft
straw instead of making a firm manikin, and do not fill the
body any harder than is necessary to secure smoothness. As
the specimen gets old, and its circumference grows smaller by
degrees, and beautifully (?) less, the mass of straw will also
shrink to accommodate the lawless tendencies of the skin.
I have successively tried the effect of curing skins of sharks
in brine, in alcohol, and in the salt-and-alum bath, but the re-
sult is always the same. It is easy enough to mount them to
perfection, but to make them remain as mounted for five years
is beyond my powers.
The rays are the meanest of all subjects that vex the soul of
the taxidermist. Shun them as you would the small-pox or the
devil. Such abominable animated pancakes, with razor edges
that taper out to infinite nothingness, were never made to be
mounted by any process known to mortal man. To mount the
skin of a vile ray, and make it really perfect and life-like is to
invite infinite shrinkage, rips, tears, warps, defeat, and humilia-
tion at the hands of your envious rivals. If you must mount a
ray, by all means get square with it at the start. Stuff his mis-
erable old skin with tow or straw, the more the better. Earn
him, cram him " full to the very jaws," like the famous rattle-
snake skin that taxidermist Miles Standish stuffed " with pow-
der and bullets." If you can burst him wide open from head to
tail, by all means do so, and you may call me your slave for the
rest of my life. Make him nice and round, like a balloon, and
then no matter what he does afterward to mortify and disgrace
you, and to drag your fair standard in the dust, you will always
have the satisfaction of knowing you are square with him.
Once when I was young and innocent, I encountered an enor-
216 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
mous ray. He was not thrust upon me, for I achieved him
—and my own ruin also, at one fell stroke. I mounted him
willingly, nay, eagerly, as Phaeton mounted his chariot, to show
the rest of the world how all rays should be done. I mounted
his vast, expansive skin over a clay-covered manikin that had
edges like a Damascus razor, and I made him flat. He was flat
enough to navigate the Platte River at low water, which even a
thick shingle can not do. He was life-like, and likewise was a
great triumph. But almost the moment my back was turned
upon him forever, he went back on me. I had put him up to
stay put, so far as my part was concerned, so he just got mad
and literally tore himself to tatters. He became almost a total
wreck, and to make my defeat a more genuine and unmitigated
crusher, Professor Ward sent word to me, all the way to Wash-
ington, that he would sell me that large ray for $5. I never
forgave him for that.
The best way to mount a ray is to make a nice plaster cast of
it, paint it, and then bury the accursed ray in a compost heap.
As a class these fishes are remarkable, and highly interesting,
and there is a far greater variety of them than anyone who is
not an ichthyologist might suppose. To me there is no other
group of fishes more interesting, and, I may add, there is no
other group that is, as a general thing, so poorly represented in
museum collections. They exhibit all possible intermediate
forms between the ordinary shark and the perfectly round, flat
ray. The intermediate forms, Rhynobatii and Rliamphobatis, are
naturally the most interesting.
PLATE XV.
AMERICAN LOBSTER.— SHOWING LOCATION OF WIRES.
CHAPTEK XXVH.
MOUNTING LOBSTEES AND CKABS.
THE following directions were written from the mounting1 of
a large lobster, but apply equally to all crustaceans large
enough to be stuffed.
1. Remove the shell of the back (carapax) in one piece, by
cutting under its lower edges, and with steel bone-scrapers
clean out all the flesh from the body and tail.
2. Take a long, stiff wire (about No. 10 for a lobster), flatten it
out at one end, and bend up a quarter of an inch of it, to form a
scraper with a sharp chisel edge. Insert this in the legs (or
" walking feet "), one by one, and clean out all the flesh they
contain, quite to their tips. With a strong syringe inject
water into each leg to thoroughly wash out the inside.
3. Take off the " movable claw " from the " big pincer," also
make a hole in the joint at A (Plate XV.), and through these two
openings remove all the flesh from the large claws, and syr-
inge them out.
4. Having thoroughly cleaned the specimen, either soak it in
some liquid poison, such as arsenic water (the easiest to pre-
pare— by dissolving arsenic in boiling water), or a corrosive
sublimate solution, or else poison it by injecting diluted arseni-
cal soap into the legs, claws, and body with a syringe.
5. Insert in each leg and claw a soft wire of zinc, galvanized
iron, or brass, and bend the end in the body at very nearly a
right angle (B-B). In large specimens the wire should be
wrapped smoothly with a little tow, so that the claws will not
be loose upon it.
6. Insert a wire in each feeler as far up as possible, and let
the lower end extend well down into the body. To hold the
specimen on its pedestal, take another wire, as long as the en-
218 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
tire specimen from head to tail, pass one end of it down
through the centre of the body, bend the wire down at a right
angle, and in the same manner pass the other end down
through the middle abdominal segment. The ends are to pass
through the pedestal and be clinched below.
7. The claws need not be stuffed.
8. When all the various members have been wired, bend all
the inner ends of the wires down in the body, and pour in a lot
of plaster Paris, which, as soon as it hardens will hold all the
wires in place.
9. Stuff the cavity of the abdominal segments with tow, put
what filling is necessary into the thorax, then put the shell
back in its place and glue it fast all around the edges.
10. Replace the movable claws, and with glue and cotton
fasten them firmly where they belong.
11. Put a wire around the end of each claw to hold it down,
or, what is better still, wire it down from the under side in such
a way that the wire will not be visible.
12. When the specimen is dry and its colors have partly
faded out, procure a fresh specimen of the same species, and
with your oil colors paint the shell carefully and artistically
from your model. Leam to blend the colors together as nature
does in such objects, softening all the lines. When the paint
is dry, if the specimen has a dead, opaque appearance, give its
surface both lustre and transparency by applying a thin coat of
white varnish and turpentine.
CHAPTEE XXVIII
ORNAMENTAL TAXIDERMY.
UNTIL within a very few years, the taxidermist produced but
little purely ornamental work, and the most of that little was
rather crude and unattractive. Now, however, decorative piecos
are produced in bewildering variety, and many of them are
justly regarded as works of art. The productions of the So-
ciety of American Taxidermists are now to be seen in thou-
sands of the finest homes in the United States, and in art gal-
leries, both public and private. In all the exhibitions of the
Society, the display of u Articles for Ornamsnt or Use " has
always been the most attractive feature, and the one which has
elicted from visitors the most surprise, admiration, and hard
cash. The beautiful exhibits made by Messrs. F. S. Webster
and F. A. Lucas, of Washington ; Thomas W. Fraiue and W. J.
( 'iitchley, of Kochester, N. Y. ; Mr. and Mrs. George H. Hedley,
of Medina, N. Y. ; Mr. John Wallace, of New York ; David
Bruce, of Brockport, N. Y. ; and Messrs. F. T. Jencks, and Al-
drich & Capen, of Boston, will certainly never be forgotten by
those who saw them.
It is impossible to describe here the precise methods by
which the various kinds of decorative objects may be produced,
and surely in the light of all the methods and details that have
already been given, it is unnecessary. It will be sufficient to
describe bjr word and picture the character of the various classes
of objects, and leave their production to be worked out accord-
ing to the principles already laid down. The accompanying
plate represents a carefully selected group of decorative objects
which were displayed in the New York exhibition of the So-
ciety of American Taxidermists, and were afterward presented
by their respective owners to the National Museum at Wash-
ington, where they are now displayed in the Society's exhibit.
220 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
WALL CASES. — The shallow box case with glass front, shelter-
ing- one specimen or a group, and garnished with certain ac-
cessories, is one of the most popular and pleasing1 of all pieces
of decorative taxidermy. Its evolution is due directly to the
desire to protect from destruction the more cherished of the
single specimens that first began to grace the homes of the
lovers of animated nature. In American homes there are to-
day thousands of pretty wall-cases of choice birds mounted
with suitable accessories, either natural or artificial, many with
painted backgrounds, and an equal number without. There are
also hundreds of cases of small mammals mounted in the same
way.
Artificial Leaves. — The accessories most available are grasses
and ferns carefully pressed, dried, and painted green, and set in
the foundation work. Natural moss is used in the same way,
and for bushes with foliage, artificial leaves are easily procured
and wired on to the twigs of the branch that has been selected
for use. These can be procured of any first-class dealer in
taxidermists' supplies, or at large artificial flower establish-
ments. If leaves of some special kind are desired, or leaves in
great quantity, it will be best to procure them direct of C.
Pelletier, 135 Wooster Street, New York City, who has sup-
plied me for eight years. The cost of leaves varies from 25
cents to $2.00 per gross; and for some kinds even more.
Water and Ice. — To represent water, use a sheet of clear
glass, and build up underneath it a bottom of sand, or gravel,
or weeds, as may be necessary. Ice is easily counterfeited by
coating a sheet of glass or wood with paraffin, which is quite
white, and sufficiently transparent to give the proper effect.
Icicles are manufactured by Demuth Brothers, 89 Walker
Street, New York, especially for taxidermists, at very moderate
prices, and are infinitely better than anything the taxidermist
can produce. They are fastened to the sides of snow-cov-
ered rocks, or wherever they belong, by setting them at the
base in stiff papier-mache with sinew glue.
Snow is made by flowing plaster Paris over the surface to be
covered, and dressing its surface at once ; and then, before it be-
comes quite hard, sprinkling its surface with painter's frosting,
which is exceedingly thin flakes of clear glass, and must be
ORNAMENTAL TAXIDERMY. 221
ground up in a mortar to get it fine enough to use. If ground
too finely, it becomes a dull white powder, like marble dust,
and is useless. In order to give a glistening appearance to the
surface the particles must be large enough to reflect light.
Mica is of no use for this purpose. In making the snow that
covers the ground underneath the group of musk ox in the Na-
tional Museum, Mr. Joseph Palmer invented a compound com-
posed of the pulp of white blotting-paper, starch, and plaster
Paris, which made a white, fluffy-looking mass that could be
sprinkled over the ground by hand, and closely resembles a
light fall of snow.
For the preparation of boughs of evergreens for use in
groups, so that the needles will not fall off the twigs, Mr.
Jenness Richardson, taxidermist to the American Museum of
Natural History, in New York, has, by long and patient ex-
perimenting, evolved a solution in which he actually effects
the complete preservation of coniferous foliage. When the
branches to be used have been put through this liquid and
dried, they are afterward painted, and are really as perfect as
when living on the parent stem. Mr. Richardson has kindly
put me in possession of the knowledge of his entire process,
but I am not at liberty to publish it at present.
Painted Backgrounds. — The beauty of a wall-case, or indeed
of any group in a flat case, is greatly enhanced by the addition
of a painted background of the proper character to represent
the home surroundings of the living creatures in front of it.
Of course the back must seem to be a harmonious continuation
of the bottom, where the real objects are. The tints of the
picture should be very quiet, and by no means gaudy or strik-
ing, and should not attract attention away from the zoological
specimens. The objects to be gained in a painted background
are distance, airiness, and, above all, a knowledge of the country
inhabited by the bird or mammal. As an example of the value
of a painted background in the production of a pleasing effect,
the reader is respectfully referred to a group the writer pro-
duced nine years ago, entitled " Coming to the Point," and now
in the National Museum (see Fig. 1, Plate XVI.). It is not
boasting to say that that simple group, composed of a white
setter dog, six partridges, a bush full of autumn-tinted leaves,
222 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
and a really handsome painted background (by Mary E. "W.
Jeffrey) has given more pleasure than anything else the writer
ever produced. The case is only ten inches deep, but the ap-
parent distance is about a mile, and the autumn scene is very
acceptable to the public, sportsmen especially.
As yet the museums will have no painted backgrounds. Ten
years ago they would have 110 groups, and no birds with
painted legs and beaks. They have all come to the two latter,
and they will all come to painted backgrounds also, in due
time, and it will be a good thing for them when they do. If I
am ever at the head of a museum, it shall have groups with
painted backgrounds galore, and there will be imitators thereof
in plenty. There is in this direction a vast field which has
hardly been touched, and when it is onco developed the world
will be the gainer. Museum managers the world over are too
conservative by half. Some of them will get out of the ruts
they are in by following others ; some will not get out until
they are dragged Out, and a few others will never get out at
all.
Twenty-five years hence the zoological museums of this coun-
try will be as attractive and pleasing as the picture galleries,
and they will teach ten times as many object-lessons as they
do now. To-day the average museum is as lifeless as a diction-
ary ; but the museum of the future will be life itself.
In Plate XVI. are shown three other examples of wall-cases, of
different kinds. Fig. 10 is a group of humming-birds, with choice
accessories, under a hemispherical glass shade, surrounded by a
black velvet mat, and set in a rich gold frame. This exceed-
ingly artistic arrangement is designed either to stand on an
easel or hang on the wall, and is the work of Mr. and Mrs.
George H. Hedley. No. 11 represents a group of gray squir-
rels in a rustic case made of papier-mache, with glass front,
top, and sides, and natural accessories, the work of Mr. Joseph
Palmer, of the National Museum. No. 12 represents a group
of south southerly ducks at the edge of a marsh, in a square
case with closed back, and painted background. This was pre-
pared by Mr. William Palmer. In Fig. 57 appears a represen-
tation of a very pretty wall-case, by Mr. F. A. Lucas. This
was one of a series of four companion cases representing the
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVI.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF ORNAMENTAL TAXIDERMY FKOM THE NEW YORK EXHIBITION
OF THE SOCIETY OF AMERICAN TAXIDERMISTS TO THE TJ. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM.
Fig.
1. " Coming to the Point " By W. T. Hornaday.
Special Medal at Third Exhibition of S. A.
T. ; also medal at Cincinnati Exposition,
1884.
2. " An Interrupted Dinner " By Frederic A. Lucas.
Diploma of Honor at First Exhibition.
3. Head of Caribou By W. J. Critchley.
(Presented by Professor Henry A. Ward.)
4. Peacock Screen By Thos. W. Frame.
5. '• Wounded Heron " By F. S. Webster.
Second Specialty Medal, Third Exhibition,
S. A. T.
0. Dead Gull By Edwin A. Capen.
7. Frightened Owl By John Wallace.
Special Medal, Third Exhibition.
8. Bald Eagle By John Wallace.
{). Fox Squirrel By P. W. Aldrioh.
10. Humming-Bird Group By Mr. and Mrs. Geo. H. Hedley
11. Group of Gray Squirrels By Joseph Palmer.
1 3. Group of Ducks By William Palmer.
13. Grotesque Group of Frogs By J. F. D. Bailly.
14. Frogs Skating By J. F. D. Bailly.
15. Snowy Heron By Thomas Rowland.
16. Portrait of Jules Verreaux By J. F. D. Bailly.
PLATE XVI.
ORNAMENT
AX1DERHT,
ORNAMENTAL TAXIDERMY.
223
four seasons, and it is only the very unscientific who need to
be informed that the blue-birds building- their nest are meant
to represent " Spring/'
TABLE GROUPS. — Veiy fine specimens are often furnished with
cases having- glass on all sides, including the top, permitting
inspection from all
points. Of course every
group of this kind re-
quires a small table for
its base. The most
striking table group I
have ever seen is one
that was prepared by
Mr. F. A. Lucas, en-
titled " An Interrupted
Dinner," and repre-
sented by Fig. 2, Plate
XVI. A red-tailed
hawk has just killed a
ruffed grouse, and has
scarcely begun his meal
when a goshawk
swoops down upon
him with outstretched
talons to seize the
quarry. The hawk has
FIG. ST.— Wall-case of Birds, bv Frederic A. Lucas.
turned upon his back,
shielding his prey with
one wing, and with beak and talons " at full cock " is ready to
receive his assailant, who hovers in mid-air immediately above
him. The goshawk is supported on an invisible brass stand-
ard, which enters his body by way of the tail, and the illusion
is perfect.
Mr. Frederic S. Webster has in his Washington studio a
table-case single specimen which is in every sense a master-
piece. It is very nearly a replica, but with a heron of a larg'-r
species, of his prize piece, " The Wounded Heron," represented
in Plate XVI., Fig. 5. A snowy heron lies on its back (on a
black velvet panel), its breast pierced by a gilt arrow, which
224 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
the wounded bird has seized with its right foot, and is endeav-
oring to withdraw. The subject is a difficult one, and its
treatment in every detail is masterly.
DEAD-GAME PANELS. — Game birds of all kinds — particularly
the handsomest ducks, geese, grouse, woodcock, and snipe-
made to represent bunches of dead game, are very popular as
dining-room ornaments, and during the last ten years the taxi-
dermists of this country have produced thousands of them,
many of great beauty. In regard to their proper make-up I
will offer a few suggestions.
While the bird is yet warm, or at least relaxed, hang it up by
one leg, pose it carefully, and mark out its outline on paper.
See that the bird hangs like a dead bird, and not like a stuffed
bird. In mounting the skin, make the body flat rather than
round, and have the eyes three-quarters dosed. The majority of
"dead-game" birds are mounted with their eyes wide open.
Birds close their eyes when dying.
The "Dead Gull," shown in Plate XVI., Fig. 5, which is the
work of Mr. E. A. Capen, of Boston, author of " Oology of New
England," may be taken as a perfect model of its kind. In ev-
ery line it is a dead bird, one that has been killed with small
shot in a sportsman -like manner, and has fallen dead without a
feather awry.
FIRE-SCREENS. — Probably no handsomer lire-screens were
ever produced by a taxidermist than those of Mr. Thomas
W. Fraine. The specimen presented by him to the National
Museum is represented in Plate XVI., Fig. 4. It is made of
the mounted head and neck of a peacock, set against a back-
ground of the ocellated tail feathers, of which the magnificent
metallic feather shield from the bird's back forms the centre.
The framework is a very thin board of tough but light wood,
the back of which is covered with satin or raw silk, and the
whole is supported on an elegant gilt tripod standard. The
effect of this arrangement as a whole is truly superb, and it
is no wonder that Mr. Frame's peacock screens have been very
popular.
The wings of the roseate spoonbill, the scarlet ibis, pelican,
egret, great blue heron, and many other birds, are often made
into fire-screens, either with or without the mounted head and
ORNAMENTAL TAXIDERMY. 225
neck. Of these the two first mentioned are the most beautiful,
especially the roseate spoonbill.
There is one form of screen produced in the west against
which I protest. An entire bird is mounted standing- on a
perch-standard, its wings are spread full stretch, and drawn up-
ward, regardless of the laws of anatomy, until the front edges
meet and touch on a perpendicular lino above the bird's back.
Such an arrangement of wings for a bird that is otherwise m/f-
uri-illy mounted is painful to look upon, to say the least. The
bird seems to be undergoing torture, and the general effect is
not pretty.
BIRD MEDALLIONS. --In 1880 Mr. F. S. Webster's genius
evolved one of the most beautiful designs in ornamental taxi-
dermy ever produced, viz., the bird medallion. The idea of
mounting one-half of a bird was not of itself a new one, but Mr.
Webster's development of that suggestion was entirely new and
novel. Instead of mounting one side of a bird with the rotun-
dity that an actual half of a fully mounted bird should possess,
he studiously flattened the subject, carefully preserving all the
while a perfect uniformity in proportions, and in each case pro-
duced the proportions of an ordinary medallion. Of course
both legs appeared on the specimen, and every specimen so
mounted was the finest of its kind, and faultless in form and
finish. The first specimen of this sort may be described as a
type of all the rest.
The subject chosen was a snowy heron (Ardea cautdidissima)
of extra fine quality. In the centre of a massive and very deep
gold and velvet frame, with a glass across its top, against a
background of black velvet of the heaviest and finest quality
stood the snow-white bird, in relief, — a genuine medallion. The
exquisite plumes of the head, breast, and back lay against the
rich black cloth like threads of spun glass. The head was raised,
and the beak slightly elevated in a very life-like attitude ; the
body rested on one leg, which stood on a little gilt log, modeled
in papier-mache, and the other foot was held up near the breast
in an attitude characteristic of the herons. The effect as a
whole was charming. There was nothing gaudy, nor cheap,
nor hard in the arrangement, and the idea was a great suc-
cess. The receiving-frame used by Mr. Webster was also his
15
226 TAXIDERMY ATSTD ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
own design, called forth by the necessity of fully protecting1 the
work.
Other birds that became popular subjects for treatment in
this way were the wood duck, scarlet ibis, white ibis, roseate
spoonbill, English pheasant, and resplendent trogon. Of course
the color and quality of the material used as a background was
varied to suit the colors of each subject, but of all the materials
tried, plush proved to be most acceptable.
HEADS. — This subject has been fully discussed in another
chapter. An additional example, showing a particularly fine
head of a barren ground caribou, on a shield of a very artistic
pattern, is to be seen in Plate XVI., Fig. 3, the original of
which was mounted by Mr. William J. Critchley, and presented
to the Society, for its exhibit in the National Museum, by Pro-
fessor Henry A. Ward.
SINGLE SPECIMENS. — Eagles, owls, hawks, ravens, crows, her-
ons, ducks, grouse, and other game birds in general, mounted
singly, on either plain or fancy pedestals, make very interest-
ing and proper ornaments for the tops of book-cases, wall-
brackets, easels, and the like. Good examples of objects of this
class are represented in Plate XVI. as follows : Fig. 8, Bald
Eagle ; Fig. 7, " Frightened Owl," by Mr. John Wallace, of New
York City ; Fig. 15, Snowy Egret, by Mr. Thomas Rowland ;
and No. 9, Gray Squirrel, by Mr. P. W. Aldrich, of Boston.
GROTESQUE GROUPS. — No one who has ever visited one of the
exhibitions of the S. A. T. is likely to forget the exceedingly
droll and mirth-provoking groups of stuffed frogs, caricaturing
poor humanity, produced by Mr. J. F. D. Bailly, now of Mont-
real, Canada. As a humorist and satirist our old friend Bailly
has few equals, and, in conjunction with his fine mechanical
skill, his love of the ridiculous took permanent form in groups
of frogs. The frog seems to have been created for the especial
purpose of enabling Monsieur Bailly to caricature mankind.
The results must be seen to be appreciated. We have had
groups of frogs duelling, playing billiards, making love, get-
ting drunk, smoking, dancing, fishing, gaming, electioneering,
and what not. For frogs, however, there is only one taxider-
mist, for I have never seen anyone else, either French or Amer-
ican, who could even rival our old friend. He skinned every
ORNAMENTAL TAXIDERMY. 237
frog through its mouth, without breaking the skin, turned it
wrong side out, wired it, made its legs of cotton, turned it back,
tilled its body with cotton, set it up in position, varnished it
all over, and fitted it out with miniature furniture to suit the
subject.
Mr. Bailly used to cut similar taxidermic capers with squir-
rels, and Messrs. Critchley, Lucas, and others have produced
some very amusing grotesque pieces with cats and kittens. In
Plate XVI., Fig. 15, is shown (indistinctly) one of Mr. Bailly's
frog groups, entitled " Sold Again." A fisherman is in the act
of pulling out a big fish, which the attending small boy reaches
out to take in with a dip-net, when the fish turns out to be only
an old shoe.
FUR RUGS WITH MOUNTED HEADS.— Before a raw pelt or skin
can be made up as a rug, it must be sent to a first-class tanner,
and thoroughly tanned and dressed. This process should
make the skin clean, soft, and pliable. If the head is to be
mounted, that part should iiot be tanned, nor put through any
process. After the skin has been properly tanned, relax the
head, and mount it in such a manner that the head will lie as
flat as possible upon the floor. When the skull is present, it is
customary to mount- tiger, leopard, and bear rugs with the
mouth open, snarling. Some prefer to have a head mounted
with the lower jaw entirely off, and only the upper half of the
head filled out. This makes of the head what is known as a
" mask." Every rug requires to have an inner lining of buck-
ram to give it body and stiffness sufficient to keep it spread out
Hat. "Underneath that must come the lining proper, of quilted
felt of suitable color, which is generally left projecting an inch
or two beyond the skin all around. This projecting edge is
pinked with a pinking iron, to make it more ornamental.
The finest work on rugs, particularly the finer kinds, such as
lion, tiger, leopard, and bear, is done by Mr. F. S. Webster, of
Washington, who has developed this lino of work most hand-
somely and systematically, and who does an immense amount
of it. Elsewhere in this book appears full directions for tho
preservation of skins for sale as pelts for furriers' use.
How TO MAKE IMITATION ROCKS. — In making a rock work
pedestal, the first thing is to build your foundation, of wood if
228 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
it be very large, of wood covered with very stiff and strong
paper, if it be small. In the latter case there must be a
wooden skeleton to which the paper may be tacked. Having
tacked the paper on in large sheets, and duly crumpled it to
get the proper form of the rocky mass, give the paper a coat of
thick glue. When dry it will be quite stiff and strong. Now
apply papier-mache of a coarse quality, and model its surface
to show the proper angles or lines of stratification. Procure
some granite or sandstone, or whatever rock you choose to
imitate, pound it up as finely as necessary, and after giving the
surface of the papier-mache a coat of thick glue, apply your
rock material by throwing it against the surface to be covered,
so that the particles indent the surface and stick fast. In this
way the whole surface can be completely covered, and when it
is done with the actual material, no painting is necessary. The
possibilities and variations in this line are infinite, and so
much depends upon circumstances it is unprofitable to go fur-
ther into details.
Very pretty single pieces, or small masses of rock, may be
made by using peat, or coke, or cork, either in large pieces or
smaller pieces glued together, and covering the surface with
fine sand mixed with various dry colors, and adding colored
lichens in spots here and there.
Cloth is poor stuff to use in making rockwork. It draws in
straight lines, and in smooth, plain surfaces. It generally
shows up the wooden framework to perfection. Use manila
paper instead, by all means, and take great pains in shaping
your wooden foundation. Always avoid straight lines and
plain surfaces.
CHAPTEK XXIX.
GROUPS AND GROUPING.
THE rapidity with which the art of taxidermy has won its way
to public favor in the United States during- the last two decades
is certainly very gratifying1. Less than twenty years ago a great
naturalist declared that a skin stuffed is a skin spoiled. Even
ten years ago the only specimens permitted in museums were
those that were mounted singly, in stereotyped attitudes, on
polished pedestals of hard wood.
Between the years 1860 and 1876 a few of the more ambitious
taxidermists of Europe produced various groups of mammals,
large and small. Of these, one of the most noteworthy was
the "Lion and Tiger Struggle," by Edwin Ward, of London,
and another was Jules Verreaux's " Arab Courier attacked by
Lions." The most of these groups represented animals in the-
atrical attitudes, usually fighting. While they were of much
interest for certain purposes, they were of but little value to
persons desiring to study typical forms of the species which
were represented. It would have been quite as appropriate to
place the " Dying Gladiator " or " The Laocoon " in an ethno-
logical museum, as it would have been to place such groups as
the " Lion and Tiger Struggle " of Edwin Ward, or Rowland
Ward's " Combat of Red Deer," in a collection of mounted
mammals in a scientific museum. Up to the year 1879 no large
groups of mammals had been prepared in this country which
were considered appropriate for scientific display collections.
Furthermore, the production of groups of mammals or birds
suitable for scientific museums was generally considered an
impossibility.
In 1879 the writer returned from a collecting trip to the East
Indies, having in mind numerous designs for groups of mam-
230 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
mals, both large and small. It was believed tlien that many of
these would not only be suitable for scientific museums, but
would also be far more attractive and instructive than ordinary
specimens. A design for a group of orang utaiis was prepared
and submitted to Professor Henry A. Ward, with whom the
writer was then associated, at his Natural History Establish-
ment, with a proposition to prepare such a group as was there
represented. After considerable hesitation Professor Ward
finally decided to let the experiment be tried, and the group was
prepared according to the design.
I do not deny the soft impeachment that in one respect this
design was highly suggestive of the methods adopted by my
European rivals to secure attention to their work, or, in other
words, it was a trifle sensational. The group in question repre-
sented a pair of immense and hideously ugly male orang utans
fighting furiously while they hung suspended in the tree-tops.
The father of an interesting family was evidently being assailed
by a rival for the affection of the female orang utan, who, with
a small infant clinging to her breast, had hastily quitted her
nest of green branches, and was seeking taller timber. The
nest which she had just quitted was an accurate representation
of the nest constructed by this great ape.
In the middle of the group, and at the highest point, was
another nest in the top of a sapling, on the edge of which
another interesting young orang utan — a production evidently
of the previous year, was gazing down with wide-eyed wonder
at the fracas going on below. The accessories to this were so
designed and arranged as to represent an actual section of the
top of a Bornean forest, at a height of about thirty feet from
the ground, representing the natural trees, with leaves, orchids,
pepper-vines, moss, and vegetation galore. For such a subject
an unusual amount of care was bestowed on the accessories.
Although the design of this group included the theatrical feat-
ure of a combat between animals, there was method in this mad-
ness. This feature was introduced for the specific purpose of
attracting attention to the group and inviting discussion.
The remainder of the group was of such a character that it
seemed no scientific observer could find fault with its natural-
ness. All the various members of the group were represented
PLATE XVII.
Reproduced from " Two Years in the Jung'e.
A FIGHT IN THE TREE-TOPS.
(PART OF THE GROUP IN TUB NATIONAL MUSEUM, MOUNTED BY THE AUTHOR.)
GROUPS AND GROUPING. 231
in natural attitudes (the result of elaborate life-studies in the
Bornean jungles), and each one told its own story of the orang
titan's life and habits (Plate XVII.)
It is not too much to say that the group caught the popular
fancy. It was completed in September, 1879, just in time to be
sent to Saratoga, for exhibition before the meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, osten-
sibly for the purpose of illustrating a paper by the author on
'' The Species of Borneaii Orangs." Naturally it attracted con-
siderable attention, and it seemed to meet the approval of the
members of the Association, particularly the museum directors
and superintendents, who were especially interested in such
work.
Although it may be the reverse of modest in me to say so, I
cannot help believing that the production of that group marked
the beginning of an era in the progress of museum taxidermy
in the United States. The price placed upon this group
($2,000) prevented its immediate sale ; but in a short time an-
other group of orang utans, similar in composition but of a very
different design, was ordered by Mr. Robert Colgate, of New
York, for the American Museum of Natural History, and pre-
pared by the writer at Professor Ward's establishment. This
group represented the orang at home — a perfectly peaceful
scene in the top of a Bornean forest. It included five orang
utans, of various sizes and ages, feeding on durions, sleeping in
a nest, climbing, sitting, and swinging. This group wras also
very well received by the public. As in the case of the first
production, the accessories were all carefully worked out. The
price paid for this group was $1,500.
In the year 1880, when the Society of American Taxidermists
was organ i/ed in Rochester, N. Y., for the development of the
art of taxidermy, the museum-group idea was much discussed
by its founders at Ward's Natural Science Establishment. Mr.
Frederic S. Webster determined to make a further test of pub
lie sentiment by the production of a large group of birds, de-
signed especially for a place in some scientific museum. With
most praiseworthy enterprise he accordingly prepared, at his
own expense, and with great care and skill, a group of three
flamingoes of the largest size. Two of the birds were rep re
232
TAXIDERMY ATSTD ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
FIG. 58.— Mr. Webster's Prize Wood-Duck.
seiited as standing- at the edge of a shallow lagoon, and the
third was sitting- on its nest of mud. The water of the la-
goon was successfully represented, as also were certain aquatic
plants by artificial productions of the finest kinds. At the first
exhibition of the Society, which was held in Rochester, in 1880,
this group, and also the first group of orang utans, " A Battle
in the Tree-tops," was exhibited. To the group of orang- utans
was awarded the special-
ty medal, offered "for
the best piece in the en-
tire exhibition ; " but to
the surprise of every-
one, save the judges
themselves, and to the
consternation and cha-
grin of the founders of
the Society, the group
of flamingoes was en-
tirely ignored, and the
medal offered for the second best piece in the entire exhibition
was awarded to a solitary wood-duck, mounted by Mr. Webster,
and figured herewith (Fig. 58).
The failure of the flamingo group to receive any recognition
caused deep disappointment to all those who had watched its
production with so much interest and hopeful anticipation. It
had been fondly hoped that it mig-ht prove to be the predeces-
sor of a long series of bird groups of the most varied and inter-
esting character.
The judges of this exhibition were men of high scientific at-
tainments, and their honesty of purpose in making- their awards
could not be questioned for a moment. On being- mildly taken
to task for their failure to appreciate the group of flamingoes,
the judges maintained that such groups were not suitable for
scientific museums, as was the evident intention in its prepara-
tion. Arguments to the contrary were of 110 avail, and the
believers in such groups were obliged for the time being to
hang their harps on the willows. It is a pleasure to record the
fact that, although the time had not then arrived, subsequent
events have proved that the idea of the group -makers was a
GROUPS AND GROUPING. 233
good one ; and, although the production of groups did not come
to pass precisely as was then anticipated, time has wrought
its perfect work, and groups are now the order of the day.
In 1882 the writer was appointed chief taxidermist of the
National Museum. In the year following, the first group of
orang utans, " The Fight in the Tree-tops," was purchased of
Professor Ward by that institution, and after being partly re-
constructed was placed on exhibition in the Hall of Mammals,
where it now is. Since it left his establishment, Professor Ward
has been pleased to call it " the king of groups."
The group idea was frequently advanced by the writer to the
directors of the National Museum, but the time for its practical
adoption on a liberal scale did not arrive until 1886. It is true
that in 1884 Professor Goode had six groups of ducks prepared
by Mr. Webster, and six bird groups of the same size prepared
by Mr. Marshall at the Museum ; but with the completion of
these the mounting of bird groups there came to an end. The
condition of the regular exhibition series of mounted mammals
demanded several years' uninterrupted work before any attention
could be devoted to such exceptional work as the preparation of
groups either large or small. Finally, in the year 188G, the au-
spicious moment arrived. The collecting by the writer of a very-
large series of specimens of the American bison resulted in his
receiving permission to prepare a large mounted group after his
own design. To his intense gratification he was given c«r/<-
I>l<niclie as to time and expense, and no limit was placed 011 tin-
size of the group, the character or extent of the accessories, or
the cost of the case to contain all. The experiment was to be
regarded as a crucial test of the group idea as adapted to the
purposes of scientific museums.
While the group of buffaloes was still in course of prepara-
tion, the writer prepared, as a "feeler," a very simple group,
consisting of three coyotes, a large male and female and one
young specimen. The attitudes and grouping was simplicity
itself, and the ground was nothing but gravelly sod, bearing a
few stunted bunches of bad-lands grass. In order that famil-
iarity might not breed contempt, this group was kept carefully
secluded from the observation of the Assistant Director until it
was finished and in its case in the mammal hall of the museum.
234 TAXIDETCMY AXD ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
Its character was about as follows : A young- specimen — a puppy
about four weeks old — was playfully endeavoring- to pull the jaw-
bone of an antelope out of its mother's mouth. Standing- a
trifle behind these two stood the father of the family, a really
noble specimen of the species, if by any stretch of the imagina-
tion a coyote — the king- of sneaks — can be considered noble.
His head was held high in the air, and he was undoubtedly look-
ing afar off, as if watching- for the coming- of the man with a
gun. (See Plate XVIII.)
This little group was heartily approved, and the question of
groups in the National Museum was settled forever before the
production of the buffalo group was fully accomplished. The
idea as a whole was pronounced not only satisfactory, but ex-
ceedingly desirable, and orders were given that groups of all
the more important American mammals should be designed and
produced as rapidly as practicable. Work was immediately
commenced on several other groups, and by the time the group
of buffaloes was completed and ready for exhibition, which oc-
curred in March, 1888, three other groups were ready to be dis-
played at the same time, viz., of antelopes, prairie-dogs, and
opossums.
The reception accorded the group of buffaloes settled all
doubt that might have previously existed regarding the estima-
tion in which such productions would be held by the public.
At present the only trouble which the taxidermic department
of the National Museum labors under is that it is unable to pro-
duce groups of mammals half fast enough. In March, 1890, a
large group of moose, of the same dimensions as the group of
buffaloes, was completed, and a group of musk oxen was com-
pleted a month later. Many other groups are in course of prep-
aration.
By a curious coincidence, within three years from the time
the Society of American Taxidermists found its first group of
birds so frowned upon by museum officers, the British Museum
undertook the preparation of a large series of mounted groups
of birds, with accessories both natural and manufactured. Pre-
cisely in line with our idea, these groups were intended to
show the birds in their haunts, and, as far as possible, to show
their nesting habits. Naturally enough they were produced
i-J
Pu
GROUPS AND GROUPING. 23f»
with the care which such subjects merit, and the results are
truly admirable. \Vlmn some of these groups were seen by the
enterprising- and far-sighted President of the Board of Trus-
tees of the American Museum of Natural History, Mr. Moms
K. Jesup, he immediately determined to have a series of bird
groups prepared for thy great institution he has for many years
so ably directed. He engaged Mr. Jeuness Richardson, then in
the taxidermic department of the National Museum, and the
work was begun in 1886. Mr. Richardson never saw any of the
bird groups of the British Museum, and the work he has pro-
duced is as much his own as though the British Museum col-
lection had never existed. Going as he did from the National
Museum, the group idea was by no means new to him, and the
seventy beautiful groups he has since produced stand as a
lasting monument to his skill as a taxidermist, his artistic con-
ception in designing, and his energy as a collector. No other
feature in the entire Museum of Natural History at New York
is so attractive and pleasing to the general public as are the
groups of mounted birds.
CHAPTEE XXX.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GROUP-MAKING.
THERE are several vital principles which apply to all kinds of
groups, both large and small, and we must consider these be-
fore proceeding1 to discuss the different kinds of groups.
SPECIMENS. — The specimens selected to compose a group
should by all means be the finest procurable. It is a mistake
to go to the trouble and expense of mounting- a number of
specimens in a group unless each object is entirely satisfactory
in quality. If the group is to represent a family, let the old
male and female specimens be of the larg-est size, and with the
finest possible pelage or plumage, as the case may be. Do
not begin the mounting of a group until you have in hand a
series of specimens that is entirely satisfactory. Let them be
so fine that their quality will be remarked by all observers. It
will then be a pleasure to lavish work upon them. Even if you
should mount a specimen and afterward discover that it is in-
ferior, discard it by all means in favor of a better one. A large
group of either mammals or birds represents a very consider-
able outlay in money and time, and unless the quality of the
specimens is above criticism, the group is by no means a suc-
cess. I have found that it is a work of from one to two years'
time to procure the specimens necessary for a complete group
of large mammals of any kind.
The best of all ways to procure specimens for groups is to
go into the field, find them in their haunts, study them alive,
study their habitat and their habits ; shoot, measure, and pre-
serve them with your own hands. If you are unable to do this
yourself, then it must be done for you by some competent
person, under your direction. In procuring young animals,
which are very necessary in nearly all groups for scientific pur-
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GROUP-MAKING. 237
poses, the greatest vigilance is required to enable the collector
to secure the specimens just when they reach the right age
and size.
DESIGN. — When you have determined to prepare a group of a
certain species, stucty the character and size of the subjects to
compose it, and then begin by sketching, to the best of your
ability, a design in which each specimen shall have its place
and attitude. In the preparation of large groups, I have
always found the satisfactory arrangement of the specimens
the most puzzling and perplexing feature of the work. But
however difficult it may be to satisfy myself with a design, I
never proceed with a group until the composition of my sketch
group is satisfactory. The two largest and finest specimens in
a group should constitute its central and commanding figures.
Put as little life as possible in the comers of a group, and by
all means make the specimens show an interest in, and a rela-
tion to, each other. The design must be dominated by one cen-
tral idea or purpose, which should never be lost sight of in the
arrangement of the group. It is unnecessary to say that each
group should form a perfect picture, compact, well rounded,
and the relationship of the different specimens to each other
should be so clearly defined as to leave no room for the sugges-
tion that the specimens have been mounted independently, and
simply placed together.
SPACE. — No matter how small or large a group may be, to be
perfect in effect it must have abundant case-room. Let there
be some room to spare in the corners and above the group.
The top of the case should by all means be of glass. An airy,
light, out-door effect can not be secured in a small, cramped
cage, in which the specimens appear like caged circus animals.
If you wish to have your specimens look alive, and as if they
are really on their native heath, they must not be " cabin'd,
cribb'd, confin'd."
ACCESSORIES. — Although poor accessories are better than none,
you will, of course, have them all as nearly perfect as possi-
ble. Spare neither time, trouble, nor expense in procuring the
finest collection of accessories that you can possibly gather.
Do not think you must be satisfied with the first that comes to
hand, but search far and wide until you have obtained precisely
238 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
wliat you want. Do not be too lavish in the use of accessory
material. Remember that enough is as good as a feast, and too
much is good for nothing. There are two principles, either
one of which can govern you in your selection of accessory
material. One is to select a given spot of ground of precisely
the same area as the section you propose to use as the ground-
work of your group, and reproduce only such materials as are
found on that particular square of mother earth. This is the
idea which has been strictly followed in the preparation of the
groups of birds in the American Museum of Natural History
by Mr. Richardson. I hold to a different principle. I believe
that it is best to select from a given locality such material as
will best represent an ideal section of the country to be repre-
sented as the habitat of the group. Of course, it is necessary
to exercise care not to bring together too great an assortment
of materials. By acting on this principle we secure a limited
selection of the most common and familiar species of plants in
a given locality, and at the same time have the advantage of
arranging them for the best artistic effect on the ground which
has been prepared to accommodate the group according to the
design. With small groups, in which a nest or burrow is to be
represented, it is an easy and simple matter to reproduce the
exact situation in which the home of the animal was situated.
In the preparation of large groups this is a practicable impos-
sibility.
SPECIAL EXHIBITION GROUPS. — To this class properly belongs
such subjects as Verreaux's "Arab Courier attacked by Lions ; "
Edwin Ward's " Lion and Tiger Struggle ; " and the two
groups, " Lions Fighting " and " Horseman attacked by Ti-
gers," prepared by John Wallace, of New York. Such groups
are bold in design, theatrical in effect, and each one is sup-
posed to represent a tour deforce on the part of the originator.
They are valuable for great expositions, for show-windows,
fairs, crystal palaces, and the like. For such purposes the
more startling they are, the better. Animals are usually
chosen which will admit of a representation of vigorous action.
The most favorite theme is large animals in combat. Pie who
has the boldness to introduce the human form divine in such a
composition will oftener than otherwise have occasion to wish
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GROUP-MAKING. 230
he hadn't. The human figure is, at best, a difficult subject to
handle, and in its introduction with mounted quadrupeds the
designer often finds, to his sorrow, how very short is the step
from the sublime to the ridiculous. In general I should say
that the human figure is an excellent thing to leave out of a
group of mounted quadrupeds, unless it happens to be an Es-
quimau completely enveloped in thick furs. In the prepara-
tion of groups of this class, the ambitious taxidermist has be-
fore him almost as great a variety of subjects as has the
sculptor, since his work is subject to precisely the same general
rules.
CHAPTER XXXI.
GROUPS OF MAMMALS.
GROUPING SMALL MAMMALS. — Since onr small mammals can
not migrate south in winter, as do the birds, each species must
provide itself with a winter home, or perish. The nesting and
burrowing1 habits of these builders of " homes without hands "
afford a most interesting- field for investigation and study, and
one which is of great interest to everyone. Almost without
exception, every mammalian species found in the United States
below the size of the coyote, establishes for itself during a part,
if not the whole, of the year, a fixed habitation. Some of the
more enterprising species, notably the squirrels and rabbits,
enjoy the luxury of a summer residence as wt?ll as a winter
home. The groups of small mammals which the National Mu-
seum is now producing and placing upon exhibition have for
one of their principal features the illustration of the home-
making habits of the species represented. A mention of one
or two examples will serve to convey an idea of the type of
each class.
A group of American opossums may be taken as a good ex-
ample. The case which encloses the entire group is 4 feet
long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet high. The frame of the case
is as light as possible, and all four sides and the top are of
glass. On the side of a sloping bank stands the base of a small
gum-tree, with the roots on the lower side exposed by the
crumbling away of the bank. Of course the trunk rises to the
top of the case, where it is cut squarely off. At the bottom of
the sloping bank, between two of the roots, is an opening,
which is recognized at once as the doorway to the opossum's
home. The burrow winds upward between the roots of the
tree, and finally turns off to the left into the bank, Avhere, after
GROUPS OF MAMMALS. 241
running1 through a passage-way of two or three feet in length,
the nest itself is found. It is in a pocket-like excavation, and
a circular section is cut out of the front of the bank so as to
make an opening through which the nest can be seen. The
nest is lined with dead leaves, in which lies an opossum curled
up and sound asleep. At the back of the case a sectional view
of the bank is represented, and by means of an opening cut
here and there, the course of the burrow is plainly seen. In
the foreground is an old mother opossum Avith several young
ones riding on her back, clinging to her gray coat, while the
head of another protrudes from her pouch. This represents
the manner in which the opossum carries her young after they
have reached a certain age. From a small branch hangs an-
other opossum, suspended by its prehensile tail, sprawling in
mid-air. This specimen is a female, and shows the size and
location of the wonderful marsupial pouch. Another individual
is climbing up the trunk of the tree. A fourth specimen,
which has been disturbed by another, is pausing to protest
with widely opened mouth, while in the act of creeping into
the mouth of the burrow.
Please notice the number of facts that are taught by this
simple little group. It shows that the opossum is a marsu-
pial, and the female carries her young in a pouch in her own
body j that when the young reach a certain age, they ride upon
the mother's back, clinging to her fur ; that the animal is ar-
boreal in habit, and has a prehensile tail, by which it is capable
of suspending itself ; that it burrows in banks in dry situations,
and sleeps curled up like a ball in a bed of dry leaves. It also
shows the full size of the adult, the young of the previous year,
and the recent brood. But for an unfortunate accident, which
has yet to be. repaired, it would also show the number born at
one birth. Of course in this group the grass and moss is
properly represented, and there are artificial leaves on the tree
branches which enter the group.
Groups of this class can easily be made to show the ordinary
nesting and breeding habits of the animals represented. Now
it happens that animals of some species make a variety of nests,
according to circumstances or caprice. In 1889 we prepared a
group in three sections, each of which shows one of the habits of
16
242 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
the gray squirrel in nesting1. Each is composed of an actual nest,
and in the identical tree in which it was built by Bunny himself.
One represents a nest in a hollow beech tree, in which a pair
of gray squirrels bred for years. Another is what might be
called a summer nest, made of cedar bark, in the top of a cedar
tree. It is a round ball, and in size and shape much resembles
a hornet's nest. The third section represents an outside nest of
green oak-leaves, placed on a branch of an oak tree. These
three groups are exhibited in one case, but while each is sepa-
rated from the others by a plate of heavy tinted glass, it is made
apparent that they all illustrate the habits of the same animal.
The specimens composing1 the three groups were all collected
within a radius of ten miles of the city of Washington. Besides
teaching what the nesting habits of the gray squirrel are, it also
impresses upon the observer the very important fact that the
habits of different individuals of a given species are capable of
wide variation. They show how dangerous it is for a student
or scientific investigator to generalize too freely from one or
two facts, and that it is dangerous for anyone to say what an
animal will not do !
In beginning the preparation of small mammal groups (for a
museum) the following hints may be of service : It is not neces-
sary that a small group should be designed and sketched out in
advance. The first step, therefore, is the finding of a typical fam-
ily of specimens, and a suitable burrow or nest. The character
of the creature's home will largely determine the design of your
group. By all means endeavor to secure a nest or burrow which
can be fitly shown as a typical home of the creature represented.
When the nest of an animal is situated in a tree, it is nearly
always possible to cut out a section of the tree, and introduce it
bodily into your case, with appropriate leaf settings. When an
animal burrows in the ground, as do the fox and the wood-
chuck; the best that can be done is to dig out the spot carefully,
taking measurements and diagrams as you proceed, to show the
direction and size of the entrance and the exact shape and size
of the nest. You can then manufacture a bank and reproduce
a perfect fac-simile. Of course all the nest materials — refus^
bones, hair, and feathers — must be taken along bodily, and used
in the manufactured nest.
GROUPS OF MAMMALS. 243
In displaying a portion of a tree-trunk which contains a nest,
it has been our custom to saw out a rectangular section at one
side of the hollow, and hang the piece on hinges at one side of
the opening, like an open door, so that the entire interior and
the situation of the nest can be seen. Of course it is in order
to place a number of the young specimens in the nest in char-
acteristic attitudes.
When you have collected a number of young specimens,
mount them at once while the forms and attitudes are fresh in
your mind and the skins are in good condition. If you are
lucky enough to get the young alive, you can mount some of
the skins while the others serve as living models.
Now comes an important point. It usually happens that at
the time when the young are of the best age to display in a
group, the fur of the adult specimen is at its poorest. Worse
than that, shedding is often in progress. No matter what hy-
percritics may say, do not hesitate to perpetrate an anachronism
by taking adult specimens later in the season, when their fur is
at its best. It would be an injustice to the group, to the species,
and to yourself, to include adult specimens in their poorest pel-
age. Along with your groups of young animals, which neces-
sarily represent conditions during spring or summer, do not
forget to represent some of your species in their winter homes,
with their stores of nuts, acorns, etc., for winter use.
The field open to the conscientious and really artistic taxider-
mist in the preparation of groups is a wide and deeply inter-
esting one. I know of no branch of taxidermy which ought to
be more interesting than this. Its possibilities are open to all.
While it is impossible for everyone to prepare groups of
large mammals, in the matter of small groups you can say, " The
world's mine oyster."
GROUPS OF LARGE MAMMALS. — In creating a high-class group
of large mammals, it is, as lias been stated before, extremely
desirable to prepare the design first, and collect the specimens
to suit it. There is no burrow or nest to reproduce, and tl'is
course is not only possible, but usually very necessary.
There is one important fact which should never be lost sight
of in the preparation of a design for a group of large quadru-
peds. If the animals are purely terrestrial, as will be the case
244 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
in nearly all large groups, the largest and finest adult male and
female should each stand on a flat and horizontal surface, in
easy and conventional attitudes. This is necessary in order
that the form, height, and back outline of each of the typical
adult specimens can be studied by the technical zoologist with
as much certainty and accuracy as any ordinary case specimen
standing on a flat pedestal of hard wood. To illustrate the
point : If the huge bull bison in our large group had been put
walking up hill, or walking down hill, it would now be practi-
cally impossible for anyone wishing to draw a picture of him to
accurately determine the precise angle of his hump. Further-
more, his height at the shoulders would be either exaggerated
or diminished, almost unavoidably. As it is, he was with
deliberate intention mounted on a flat and horizontal surface,
as was the cow also, so that even though they are in a group
they lose nothing whatever of their value to the technical zool-
ogist, who demands that all specimens shall be mounted on flat
surfaces, and in conventional attitudes for the sake of compari-
son. Having done this much for pure science, we are at liberty
to vary the attitudes of the remaining specimens of the group.
In a museum group suppress all tendency to the development
of violent action on the part of your specimens. In a well-reg-
ulated museum no fighting is allowed. Represent every -day,
peaceful, home scenes in the lives of your animals. Seek not to
startle and appal the beholder, but rather to interest and in-
struct him. Surely there are enough quiet and peaceful atti-
tudes to supply all your specimens without exhausting tho
stock. Let them be feeding, walking, climbing up, lying down,
standing on the alert, playing with each other, or sleepily
ruminating — in fact, anything but fighting, leaping, and run-
ning. If you do not happen to know the habits of the animals
which form the subject of your group, and it is impossible for
you to learn them by observation, then must you throw aside all
reserve, and appeal to some one who has seen and studied them
in their haunts.
It is no child's play to prepare a group of large mammals. It
invariably costs several hundreds of dollars, perhaps even
thousands, and the work is supposed to last a century or longer.
Judge, therefore, how important it is that every detail of the
GEOUPS OF MAMMALS. 245
work should be absolutely above criticism. If you mount such
a group in haste, you are certain to repent at leisure.
Having prepared your design, collected your specimens, and
made all your studies for the entire group, the next step, of
course, is mounting each individual specimen. It is an excellent
plan, and one which we have found particularly satisfactory in
grouping ruminants, to prepare all the manikins before put-
ting any skin on permanently. "We begin with the most im-
portant specimen. By mounting the manikins one by one, and
grouping them, we are able to secure the precise artistic effect
that was intended in our design. The grouping of the naked
manikins from time to time enables you to eliminate errors,
and make such changes in the attitudes as the eye may sug-
gest.
A few facts in relation to the work done in setting up the
buffalo group will serve as a fair index to work of this kind.
Of course it is to be understood that every case is to have a
wooden floor, and that one end can be opened bodily. Each
of our buffaloes stood on a strong, thick base by itself, a rough
pedestal, in fact, of a very substantial character. With pine
boards wre built a miniature hill, on which stands the spike
bull, placed him upon it, and fastened him there permanently.
The final work of arrangement was not undertaken until a
trial grouping in the case had been satisfactorily made, and
the exact position of each specimen definitely settled. A
hole was cut in the bottom of the case, to give depth to the
pool of water. The bottom of this pool was carefully mod-
eled in papier-mache, and painted. The specimens standing
farthest from the end containing the doors were first put in
place, and the groundwork built up around them. The face
of the cut bank was made by nailing wire cloth to a skeleton
framework of boards, and covering this with a coarse sort of
papier-macho, made of sawdust, plaster Paris, glue, and hair,
and used in large quantities. As fast as a specimen was put
in place and fastened, the rough groundwork of boards was
covered with the papier-mache composition to make a per-
fectly smooth foundation to receive the prairie sod. From first
to last, between three and four barrels of this coarse papier-
mache was used. It was made to set quickly, and the modeling
246 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
which was done on the surface of the cut bank, and in the bed
of the stream, was done as soon as the soft material was put on.
The surface of the pool was represented by a sheet of plate
glass, a quarter of an inch thick. The entire groundwork of
the case was covered with genuine prairie sod, each piece
about one inch thick and a foot square, cut on the buffalo range
in Montana, and shipped in barrels to Washington.
When this sod became perfectly dry, it lost all color and had
the appearance of cured hay. In order to give it the right
tone, it was necessary to spray it with a thin mixture of green
paint in turpentine, to impart to it a pale green tint. As
soon as the papier-mache was dry, the sod wras cut neatly,
matched carefully, and laid upon it — the joints being skilfully
closed. A number of clumps of sage brush and bunches of
broom sedge, grubbed up in Montana and carefully dried, were
set here and there through the group. A bed of cactus was
also introduced in the foreground. The sage brush required
no preparation except to pack it carefully, and dry it after it
reached Washington, with the branches in position. The
leaves were of the right color when dry, and remained attached
to the stems. Montana dirt was used in the bottom of the buf-
falo trail, and on the side of the cut bank. A few buffalo bones
were stuck in the side of the bank to represent fossil bones as
the}7 are often seen protruding from the faces of cut banks in
Montana. While the papier-mache around the edge of the
pool was yet soft, tracks were made in it with genuine buffalo
hoofs of various sizes, and many more tracks were made in the
dust in the bottom of the buffalo trail. Of all the accessories
in the buffalo case, everything in sight came from the Montana
buffalo range, except the sheet of glass forming the surface of
the pool.
The last six months of my connection with the National Mu-
seum witnessed the completion of the great group of moose,
which we began in 1889. In size and general make-up it is a
companion piece to the group of buffaloes, and is a memorial
worthy of the colossal species it represents. The setting rep-
resents a section of the moose woods of Upper Canada, in which
the larger animals are browsing on the tender twigs of the
white birch. The animals have come together at the edge of a
PLATE XIX.
Drawu by C. 13, liudsou.
Ouour or AMERICAN BISON IK THE NATUINA
;SEUM.— COLLECTED AND MOUNTED BY THE AUTHOR.
GROUPS OF MAMMALS. 247
bog1, which is growing full of a gigantic species of grayish
moss, peculiar to that locality. The time represented is the
middle of autumn. The few leaves that remain on the maple
saplings have been painted with October's most gorgeous tints
of crimson and yellow, mixed with green, and the leaves of the
white birch have turned pale yellow. The ground is plentifully
strewn with leaves of bright tints, through which the green
moss of moist banks shows in patches here and there.
Of the animals, the three largest — and huge beasts they are,
truly — are feeding upon the birch twigs. A yearling calf is
licking the head of a tiny brown-coated younger brother, while
a two-year-old bull is in the act of " riding down " a stout birch
sapling in order to get at the branches of its top, which would
otherwise be beyond his reach.
Three of these fine specimens were collected by Colonel Cecil
Clay, of Washington, and by him presented to the Museum for
this group, together with the trees, moss, and other accessories,
which he collected with infinite labor and care in the moose
woods. He also furnished us with field notes and critical ad-
vice throughout, which had much to do in making the group
what it is — a monument to Colonel Clay's skill and prowess as
a sportsman, and to his deep interest in Alces malcluK. It is to
be sincerely hoped that other sportsmen will follow the Colo-
nel's admirable example, and aid the museums in which they
are most interested to secure some attractive groups.
The moose group was followed immediately by the group of
musk-oxen, and there are others of Rocky Mountain goat,
mountain sheep, and sea-lions in course of preparation.
CHAPTER XXXII.
GROUPS* OF BIRDS AND REPTILES.
THE principles which underlie the production of successful
groups of birds are precisely the same as those which have
already been set forth under the head of " Groups of Small
Mammals." In addition, however, there is another which should
be kept constantly in mind, viz., to guard against the tempta-
tion to permit the accessories of a group to completely over-
shadow, and, I might say, overwhelm, the specimens themselves.
Be careful to make the birds conspicuous, and to avoid the ap-
pearance of an exhibit of artificial plants and flowers, instead of
mounted birds.
Of course each species must be represented by itself in a case
which shall contain its nest, displaj^ed in the identical bough,
or bunch of grass, or hole in the bank which it occupied when
found by the collector. Except when a nest is situated in a
bank of earth, the collector should cut a square section out of
nature, of the proper dimensions for casing, and convey bodily
the nest and its situation to the museum. Occasionally cir-
cumstances will prevent this, when it becomes necessary to col-
lect the nest and the material surrounding it, so that with their
aid the situation of the nest can be built up in the laboratory.
The finest groups of birds to be found in this country are
those in the American Museum of Natural History in New York,
which are the work of Mr. Jenness Richardson.. At present
(1891) the series consists of groups composed almost wholly of
species found in the State of New York. Each group, except in
a few instances, occupies a light, iron-framed case by itself, and
stands on an ebonized table-base, raised on legs about eighteen
inches from the floor. The frame-work of the case, and the
wood work of the base is painted black. When the home of
GROUPS OF BIRDS AXD REPTILES. 249
a ground-nesting' bird is shown, a section has been cut from
mother earth, placed on the base as the foundation, and all the
perishable plants growing thereon have been carefully repro-
duced in wax by casting, and put back in place.
Where a nest was situated in a low bush, the bush and its
foliage, and the ground beneath have all been included in its
transfer. When a nest was placed on the end of a bough, the
difficulty has been surmounted very satisfactorily by cutting oft'
as much of the bough as could be put in the case, then repro-
ducing, on the bottom of the case, the ground exactly as it was
under the tree, and simply laying carelessly upon it the cut
branch containing the nest and the birds. Of course watery
situations call for the introduction of the plate-glass imitation.
The feature of these groups that is so pleasing is that each
one appears to have been cut out of its place in field or forest,
and brought to the museum within an hour. The life-like birds,
the earth and water, the natural wood, and the beautiful foliage
of spring combine to impart to each group the breezy freshness
of the forest, the very soul of Nature all unchanged.
To see these charming productions, fresh from the hand of a
true artist-naturalist, and lay aside the spirit of carping criticism
which would find fault with even a heavenly harp, is the next
thing to finding one's self in the actual haunts of our native
birds, with their songs trilling in our ears. Mr. Richardson's
groups lack but one thing — the song of the birds. They are so
many pretty pages from Nature's choicest book, and actually
bring the life of the forest into the otherwise dead and silent
museum hall.
The time will yet come when our wealthy lovers of art and
animated nature will find places in their houses for such groups
as these, and the money to pay for them will be forthcoming.
At present they are tired of the old-fashioned glass " shade,''
covering a stiff and utterly unnatural pyramid of small stuffed
birds on an impossible " tree." The old-fashioned wall-case of
birds also fails to satisfy the aesthete, for the simple reason
that something better is wanted. We are all ready to step up
to a higher plane.
GROUTS OF REPTILES. — I know of but one good group of rep-
tiles, and that is a group of turtles which was prepared by Mr.
250 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
F. A. Lucas, and displayed at the exhibition of the S. A. T., in
New York, in 1883, where it received a medal, and afterward was
presented by him to the National Museum. This altogether
unique and pretty group teaches one very important lesson,
viz., that even the most commonplace animals are interesting
when they are well mounted, and grouped with a setting which
represents their natural haunts. Some of the specimens in this
group are represented above water, and some beneath it, while
one enterprising- individual is caught in the act of diving, with
part of his body under water and the other half out. The situ-
ation represents the successful accomplishment of a very neat
mechanical feat, and is of itself an illustration of the possibili-
ties in such matters.
After the quadrupeds of North America have been gathered
and grouped until there, remain in that direction no more
worlds to conquer, it will be quite in order for our enterprising
taxidermists then to proceed to the mounting of groups of
reptiles.
There are possibilities with such subjects as the crocodiles,
iguanas, lizards of various kinds, serpents, and turtles that few
dream of. Already Professor Goode has under consideration
the production of a series of reptilian groups for the National
Museum, and within a short time the work will be undertaken.
CHAPTEE XXXHI.
HINTS ON PAINTING MUSEUM SPECIMENS.
t
IN the preparation of museum specimens in general there is,
from first to last, a great deal of painting to be done, and a
knowledge of how to paint specimens properly is quite as
necessary as a knowledge of how to mount them.
MATERIALS NECESSARY FOR GENERAL WORK.
Brushes for Fine Work.
Artists' round Sable, No. 2, each . .
ll A U
i,
u
u
6,
" 7,
" 9,
u
It
Sets.
12cts. j
15 cts. ;
18 cts.
20 cts.
27 cts.
Brushes for Ordinary Work.
Flat Fitch (bristles), No. 1, each. . . 7 cts.
" " "2, "... 7 cts.
3, "... Sets.
4, "... 10 cts.
5, "... 10 cts.
"6, "... 12 cts.
II
II
11
II
ll
"
Brushes for Coarse Work.
Sash tool, No. 5, each 20 cts.
" " 6, " 25 cts.
Sash tool, No. 7, each 30 cts.
" 8, " 35 cts.
Palette 25 cts.
Palette knife 25 cts.
Palette cups, each . . ; 10 cts.
Spirits of turpentine, per qt 15 cts.
Boiled linseed oil, per qt 20 cts.
Hard oil finish (white, for varnish-
ing) per pt 25 cts.
\Vhnhor & Newton '« Tube Colors, as fol-
lows :
Ivory black, 8 cts. ; Vandyke brown, 8
cts. ; Burnt sienna, 8 cts. ; Raw sienna, 8
cts. ; Burnt umber, 8 cts. ; Raw umber, 8
cts. ; Naples yellow, Sets. ; Chrome yellow,
8 cts. ; Yellow ochre, 8 cts. ; Indigo, 8 cts. ;
Indian red, 8 cts. ; Vermilion, 15 cts. ;
Flake white, 8 cts. ; Sugar of lead, 8 cts.
For coarse work, all these colors, except the finer ones,
should be bought in one-pound cans, ground in oil. In addi-
tion to colors ground in oil, it is extremely desirable to have
from one to two pounds of each of the following :
DRY COLORS, AND COST PER POUND.
Zinc white 10 cts.
Vandyke brown .... 15 cts.
Lamp-black 35 cts.
Plumbago . . 10 cts.
Chrome yellow 25 cts. Raw sienna 15 cts.
Burnt umber 15 cts.
Raw umber 15 cts.
Burnt sienna. . . 15 cts.
252 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
To the enterprising- taxidermist a few dollars judiciously
expended in such materials as the above are bread cast upon
the waters, that will be sure to return to him before many
days, buttered on both sides.
No matter what it costs, have the right kind of brushes, and
a good assortment of coloring1 materials. Do not try to " get
along " with whatever you happen to have, if it happens to be
not the right thing. Don't try to paint fish scales with a sash
tool, or delicate fin-rays with a fitch. Use for such purposes
delicate, little sable pencils (fiat), Nos. 1 to 4. Take good care
of them after use, wash them out with soap and water, or ben-
zine, and keep them in good working order by keeping them
clean and soft. Do not let the colors on your palette get in a
nasty mess, fit to turn an artist's stomach inside out, but keep
your palette clean and in good order. Take from the tubes
only as much color as you are likely to use. Keep the centre
of your palette free from masses of color, so that you can have
that space for mixing.
Only those who have first been taught the slipshod ways of the
slouch, and afterward learned the methods of the artist, can real-
ize the advantages in favor of the latter as revealed in results.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. — The skins and fleshy parts of all mam-
mals and birds become shrunken, mummified and colorless
when dry, and if not covered with hair or feathers require to be
painted with the colors which have disappeared. As to what
the colors should be, th'e taxidermist must learn by observation
from living specimens, or those freshly killed, or from good col-
ored illustrations.
SURFACE. — Whatever the subject to be painted, the first care
is to see that the surface is properly prepared to receive the
color. If it be skin, it must be perfectly clean, and free from
dirt, dust, or loose scales. If a skin has any sort of powdery
deposit upon it, it must be scraped clean with a knife. Holes
and seams must be filled up with papier-mache, long enough in
advance that it will have time to dry. Papier-mache which is
to be painted should always be given two coats of white shel-
lac, mixed rather thin, before putting on any paint. If this is
not done, the mache will absorb two or three coats of paint, like
a sponge, and the surface will dry perfectly dead.
HINTS OX PAINTING MUSEUM SPECIMEN'S. 253
GLOSS. — The colors on terrestrial rnainmals and birds (except
the mouth parts and noses of the former) are very seldom/ if
ever, what may be called glossy. The mouth parts of mam
mals, or at least such as are wet by the animal's saliva, arc
always glossy, as also are the edges of the eyelids, and the bare
end of the nose in ruminants.
To give paint a perpetual gloss, like varnish, use colors ground
in oil, and mixed with boiled linseed oil only when applied.
To give paint a faint gloss, use colors ground in oil, and mix
with a mixture of boiled linseed oil and turpentine, equal
parts.
To have paint dry without gloss, mix with turpentine only
when it is applied.
To have paint dry flat and dead, use dry colors, and mix with
turpentine.
To make paint dry qu'u.-klii and be very hard, mix with it a little
sugar of lead (ground in oil) fresh from the tube.
To paint the skin 'of an animal, and yet make it look as if the
skin contained the color instead of bearing it upon its surface,
use oil colors, mix with boiled linseed oil and turpentine, equal
parts, and apply. When the paint is beginning to dry, so that it-
is sticky, take some dry color of a corresponding tint, dip into
it a clean, dry, square-ended bristle brush of good size, and
twirl it about until it becomes filled with the dry powder, then,
with light awl delicate strokes, apply it directly upon the
painted surface so that the dry color will fall upon the wet
paint like a shower of colored dust. This is to be done with
the motion that painters use in '' stippling," and may very well
be done with a stippling brush, if you have one. Do not get
on too much of the dry color, or the effect will be spoiled.
Your eye must teach you when to stop. In this process of
stippling diy color into wet paint, plaster Paris may very fre-
quently be used to good advantage to deaden gloss, and soften
effects. In coloring tli-v hairless portions of the faces, hands,
etc., of apes, baboons, and monkeys, and on many other sub-
jects, this process is of very great value.
BLENDING COLORS. — If two colors are laid down, one against
the other, each in a solid mass, up to the imaginary line that lies
between them, the effect is hard and unpleasing, because unnat-
254 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
ural. Nature never joins two contrasting- colors without a
blending together and softening of the two tones where they
touch each other. If it be red and brown, the red merges a
little way into the brown, imperceptibly, perhaps, and the line
of demarcation between the two is thus softened, and natural-
ized, if you please. Therefore, in your painting have no hard
lines where your colors meet, but always blend adjoining1 colors
together by passing a small brush over the line where they
meet.
STRENGTH OF TONES. — The colors that Nature puts on an ani-
mal are not hard, crude, and staring1, like bright red in the
mouth of a mounted quadruped, but they are always in harmony
ivith the other parts of the object. A bird may have yellow legs,
but if it does, you may be sure they will not be a bright, glossy,
chrome yellow, so gaudy as to instantly catch the eye. The
chances are, they will be Naples yellow, with only a tinge of
chrome. Learn to soften tints so they will not .be staring,
gaudy, and offensive to the eye. Examine the tongue of a live
tiger or lion, and you will notice its color is a pale pink.
In all painting, study the harmony of colors, the strength of tones,
and the blending of tints. Do not get your colors too gaudy, too
sharply contrasted, nor laid on roughly ; but paint evenly, and £•>•'•/>
all your colors in perfect harmony.
PAINTING THE SKIN OF THINLY HAIEED MAMMALS. — It very often
happens that the skin of a thin-haired mammal. has a decided
color of its own, which must be imparted to it by painting.
This is particularly the case with our next of kin — the apes and
monkeys. The orang utan has a chocolate-colored skin, except
the old males, in which it is black; the mona monkey has a
bluish skin, and the faces of nearly all primates require paint-
ing. To paint a skin through thin hair, use oil colors mixed
with turpentine, and made so thin that the mixture runs over
the skin as soon as it touches it, like water. By separating the
hair, it is often possible to get the paint on the skin without
saturating the hair save at its roots ; but if the turpentine color
does get on the hair it must be sponged off with benzine. Do
not mix your colors with oil, or you will get into serious trouble :
but the oil in which the tube color has been ground will b? just
sufficient to give a natural tone to the skin. If the color when
HINTS ON PAINTING MUSEUM SPECIMENS. 255
put on appears too strong and conspicuous, stipple the surface
with a little plaster Paris, to tone it down.
PAINTING LEGS AND BEAKS OF BIRDS. — Paint the legs and beaks
of such birds as require it, with a mixture of boiled linseed oil
and turpentine, equal parts of each, and have your paint thin
enough on the legs that it will not obscure the scales. On the
beak, a thicker coat is necessary, and, in fact, it is nearly always
necessary to put on two coats. In coloring the beaks of toucans
and hornbills, blend adjoining colors very deeply but evenly,
and let there be no hard boundary lines anywhere. A little
white wax softened and cut with turpentine and mixed with the
paint on a bird's beak gives the color a depth and transparency
quite similar to the appearance of the beak of a living bird.
PAINTING MOUNTED FISHES. — A fish must be perfectly dry
before it is touched with a brush. Time spent in painting a
half-dry specimen is so much thrown away. The repairs with
papier-mache must be complete and dry, and the specimen per-
fectly clean. Nearly every fish possesses in its coloring pig-
ment a quality which imparts to it a silvery, metallic lustre ;
therefore, to secure the finest result attainable in painting a
fish, either an actual specimen or a plaster cast, all those that
are silvery must first be coated over the entire scaly surface
•with nickel leaf, laid on sizing, similar to the treatment of gold
leaf in gilding.
With dark-colored fishes satisfactory work may be done?
without the use of nickel leaf, except on the under parts, which
are nearly always silvery white. It is absolutely impossible to
reproduce the brilliant lustre so characteristic of white scales
by the use of white paint alone, or even silver bronze, or silver
paint. AVitliout the nickel underneath the paint looks dead
and artificial. If you are called upon to make a large collection
with as little outlay as possible, it will be sufficient to omit the
nickel leaf, for your paint will still faithfully record the colors.
But if you wish to have your fish look as brilliantly beautiful as
when taken struggling from the water, put on the leaf first and
paint on it, /////////. so that the silver will show through your
colors and impart to them the desired lustre. If you paint too
thickly, the leaf will be covered up, and its lustre obscured.
Do not attempt to use silver bronze, silver j taint, or even
256 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
silver leaf, for nickel leaf is the only substance which has suffi-
cient lustre and will not oxidize, and turn yellow.
If the whole body of a fish is dark, and without silvery tints,
it is, of course, unnecessary to use leaf, for the lustre can be ob-
tained by varnishing1 over the paint.
In many fishes, such as the scaled carp, for example, Marsch-
ing's gold paint or Japanese gold can be used directly on the
scales (after the entire fish has had a thin coat of Hendley's
enamel varnish), and the silver paint can.be used to good effect
in edging the scales. On the belly, however, which is silvery
white, nickel leaf must be used. The heads of most fishes are
so dark as to render the use of leaf unnecessary upon them,
and of coiirse it need not be used on the fins.
PAINTING PLASTER CASTS OF FISHES, REPTILES, ETC. — When a
cast is first taken from the mould, it will nearly always be found
that its surface is pitted here and there with little round holes
caused by air-bubbles. .The process of wetting the inside of
these holes, and carefully filling each one with mixed plaster
Paris is called " pointing up " a cast. After this has been care-
fully done, and the form and surface of the white cast is perfect,
if the cast is thoroughly dry we are ready to begin to paint it,
and proceed as described in the preceding1 section.
In case you find it impossible to use nickel leaf on your fishes,
you can do very good work without it, except that the silvery
parts will not be really silvery, and the white paint put on will
gradually turn yellow with age. After you have given the
specimen a good coat of colors (using- zinc white for the silvery
parts, because it is more permanent than other whites), varnish
the specimen all over with a kind of heavy white varnish called
Siccatif de Harlem, or, lacking- that, enamel varnish. This will
dry in about twenty minutes, after which paint the object over
again, this time with extreme care in the final touches. In
painting fishes and reptiles, there is a vast amount of detail to
be wrought out, and constant blending of colors. On many
fishes each scale must be marked off and painted separately.
In blending the edges of two adjoining colors, it must be done
with a clean brush — a small one, of course — with either a quick,
nervous motion along the line of contact, or else a steady
sweep, according to circumstances. When the brush gets full
HINTS ON PAINTING MUSEUM SPECIMENS. 257
of paint, wash it out in benzine (not turpentine), because it
quickly becomes clean, and dries perfectly in a moment.
The eyes of fishes and reptiles are so peculiar, and vary so ex-
ceedingly, that it is a practical impossibility to provide glass
eyes that will be exactly right for each species. For fishes, as
good a way as any is to let the eye be cast in situ, and when
you paint the fish, paint the eye also as it should be, and when
dry, varnish it over with a thick coat of soluble glass or enamel
varnish.
17
PART III.— MAKING CASTS.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
PRINCIPLES OF UNIVERSAL APPLICATION IN MAKING
MOULDS AND CASTS.
THE processes employed in making plaster Paris moulds and
casts are very simple, and easily learned, even by one who has
had ^no previous knowledge of the subject. To be sure, a cer-
tain degree of intelligence and skill is necessary in the operator ;
but we are not writing for the edification of duffers who do not
know how to use their hands, or follow plain directions.
The first thing to understand is the difference between a
mould that will " draw," and one that Avill not. A mould may
be made on one side of a base-ball, and it will draw off the ob-
ject at once, because there is no point on the ball behind which,
or under which, the plaster can catch, and hang fast until some-
thing breaks. A mould of one full side of an apple will not
draw, because the apple has a hollow at each end, and when
these are set full of plaster the mould and the apple are held
firmly together.
A hollow or a protuberance on an object which would prevent
a mould from drawing away makes what is calied an " under-
cut," and necessitates the making of a separate piece in the
mould. To cast several copies of a human head and neck neces-
sitates the making of a mould in several pieces, all fitting very
nicely together, with countersink joints, to accommodate the
undercuts behind the ears, under the chin, the hollows of the
eyes, etc.
A mould made in more than two pieces is called a " piece
260
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
mould." It may have any number of pieces, of course, accord-
ing to the nature of the object. Perhaps the most remarkable
piece mould in existence is that used by Professor H. A. Ward
in making casts of the tail of the great fossil armadillo called
the glyptodon. The tail is a mass of big conical tubercles, and
the mould contains, as nearly as I can remember, about one
hundred and twenty -five pieces, all fitting into a big " jacket "
of plaster which holds them all in place while a cast is being
made. In the case of a piece mould the cast is not taken out of
the mould, but the latter is dissected and taken off the cast,
piece by piece.
The principles involved in making moulds and casts are best
explained by brief descriptions of the processes, and if they are
learned by carefully following the directions here given, the
operator will be able to apply them, indefinitely, to all classes
of objects, large or small.
How TO MAKE A PIECE MOULD. — Let us take a good-sized
apple as our subject, and follow out the process, step by step.
1. In making a mould of any kind of fruit, first soak the fruit
in water an hour
or two, to " plump
it up," so that it
will not swell in
the mould and
cause trouble.
2. Wipe it dry,
and with a small
paint-brush give
it a thin coat of
lard oil, so that
the plaster will
not stick to it.
Some objects should be coated with clay water, or very thin
clay, instead of oil.
3. Bed one end of the apple in damp sand, precisely as shown
in the illustration (Fig. 59). If you have no sand, use fine saw-
dust, or wet corn meal. Some objects require clay. Do not
have the sand wet and water soaked, for it will not yield so
readily to the palette knife.
FIG. 59.— Beginning to Make a Piece Mould.
MAKING MOULDS AND CASTS.
261
FIG. 60.— Second Step in Making a Piece llould.
4. Dot a line on the sand all round, to show how far out to
run the plaster, and avoid making the mould too thick.
5. Take two-thirds of a teacup of water, and put in plaster
Paris until it becomes about as thick as New Orleans molasses.
Stir thoroughly
with a spoon, and
let it stand two or
three minutes.
6. Dip the plas-
ter out with a tea-
spoon, and cover
the exposed part
of the apple. It
will run down all
over the horizon-
tal surface of the
sand, but never
mind that. Make
it cover the apple
everywhere to a
depth of a quarter of an inch. In some places it will be thick-
er. After about three or four minutes the plaster will be as
stiff as modeling clay. While it is in this state take your pal-
ette knife and neatly smooth and shape the outer surface. Fin-
ish smoothing with the finger, and let the plaster harden. This
will take about seven minutes longer, or until the plaster has
warmed and cooled again. The time varies according to the hu-
midity of the atmosphere.
7. Take the apple from the sand, with the half mould on it,
wash off the sand, and neatly trim the edge of the mould with a
knife.
8. With a blunt-pointed knife make three countersunk holes
in the edge of the mould.
9. With a brush, anoint the edge of the mould with thin clay,
clay-water, or soft soap, or lard oil, or even lard.
10. Turn the mould up on edge, and bed half of the exposed
portion of the apple in the sand, as seen in Fig. 60. Fill in this
space with plaster, precisely the same as when the first piece
was made, which produces the second piece of the mould.
262
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
11. Make the countersunk holes in the edge of the secqnd
piece as before ; fill in with plaster all the remaining space
between pieces 1
and 2, and we
have the third
piece, which com-
pletes the mould.
As soon as this
hardens, tap the
mould lightly all
over with a small
mallet, to loosen
it from the object,
then take out
piece No. 3, and
the mould is easi-
FIG. 61. -Last Step in Making a Piece Mould.
ly separated and the apple taken out. Take one part of gum
sandarac (dissolved in ninety -five per cent, alcohol) and three
parts of white shellac, also dissolved, and mix them. They will
form a solution a little thicker than water. Have the mould
perfectly dry, and apply this solution to the entire inner sur-
face of it with
a small paint-
brush. The so-
lution will be
absorbed at first,
and you must
continue to ap-
ply it until the
inner surface
has an egg-shell
gloss, which is
sufficient. Then
oil the inside
with lard oil.
12. P^^t together pieces 1 and 2 of the mould, cut a groove
around them to hold a stout string, and tie it tightly to liold
them together. Then mix some plaster, and fill each piece (1
and 2) about half full, walling it up the sides with the finger, a
FIG. C2.— The Finished Mou'.d.
MAKING MOULDS AND CASTS.
263
quarter of an inch thick, or as the plaster will make it. Then
wipe off the exposed edges of the mould so they will fit snugly
together with No. 3. Now mix up a little more plaster, about
one -fourth the quantity first used, pour into the hollow, then
put on the third piece : tie all tightly together, and turn the
mould round and round slowly. This fills the third piece, and
holds it in its place. Keep turning the mould slowly, and tap-
ping it with the left hand. Leave a little of the plaster on the
outside, on a piece of glass or paper, so that you can tell when
it gets hard and flinty in the mould. Do not take off the mould
until the cast is perfectly hard.
How TO MAKE A WASTE MOULD.— When a soft or fleshy ob-
ject is to be cast,
one which will
yield, and draw
out of the mould
regardless of un-
dercuts, a very
quick and satis-
factory process
(provided a sec-
ond copy of the
cast will never
be wanted) is to
make what is called a waste mould. This, with a fleshy sub-
ject, is a short cut to a perfect cast, and often saves hours of
valuable time. In obtaining casts of mammal heads, legs, or
other parts, or casts of fishes and reptiles, it is the method joar
excellence. Let us learn the principles of it by making a waste
mould and cast of a human hand.
1. Bed the hand in damp sand (i.e., qce-lialf of it), as shown
in the accompanying figure, No. G3.
2. Give the exposed portion of the hand a good coat of lard
oil.
3. Take two-thirds of a gill of water in a teacup, put into it
half a teaspoonful of dry Indian red (to be bought for five cents
at any paint store), and mix it up. This is to color sonic plaster
with which to make a thin, colored lining for our mould, the
purpose of which will be appreciated later on.
Fio. 63. — The Beginning of a Waste Mould.
264
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
4. Mix with this red water one and one-half gills of plaster
Paris, stir it up thoroughly to get it well mixed and free from
air-bubbles, then with a teaspoon distribute it all over the hand
until it is completely covered with a coat of the pink plaster
about one-eighth of an inch thick.
5. After this thin coat has hardened, anoint the surface of it
with lard oil or clay water, so that the plaster which is to be put
upon it will not stick to it, but separate readily when the outer
case of the mould is chiseled off.
6. Take one and one-half gills of water, and three-quarters of
a pint of plaster, mix for outer case of mould, and apply on top
of the pink lining to a thickness of about half an inch. Let
this get perfectly hard. (Fig. 64.)
7. Take the subject out of the sand. Turn it over, anoint the
edge of the mould with clay water or lard oil, and treat the
other side in precisely the same manner. This is the course
when the whole object is to be cast. If half the object is suffi-
cient, as is the case in taking a record cast of one side of an ani-
mal's head and body, then take the subject from the mould,
and
8. Wash the inside of the mould thoroughly to get out the
clay and sand.
9. Anoint the inside of the mould with clay water, thin clay,
or lard oil, and
lay it in position
t o receive the
plaster.
10. Mix a prop-
er quantity of
plaster, pour it
into the mould
and let it harden.
Lay the mould
(with the cast in-
side) on a cush-
ion, or on your lap ; take a half -inch chisel and a light mallet,
and, beginning at the end nearest your left hand, chisel away
the case of the mould, bit by bit, until you come down to the
pink lining coat, which shows that you are close to the cast.
Fia. 64.— Second Step in Making a Waste Mould.
MAKING MOULDS AND CASTS.
265
Great care is necessary to avoid breaking the cast, which of
course is very easily cut or broken. In cutting off the pink
lining be exceedingly careful
not to go too deep (Fig. 65).
The purpose of this lining is
to show you when you are close
to the cast. If the case of the
mould is quite thick, hold the
chisel on a slant of about fifty
degrees from a perpendicular,
and pare off the upper surface
gradually.
MAKING GELATINE MOULDS.—
There are many
objects which can
not be copied in
plaster by either
of the above meth-
ods without great
difficulty. These
are hard s u b-
stances, the sur-
faces of which are
extremely irregu-
lar and full of lit-
tle hollows, such
FIG. 65.— Chiseling off the Waste Mould.
as meteorites, statuettes, sculptured rocks, or models such as
those of the Aztec calendar stone and sacrificial stone. "When
a number of copies are required, the making of a waste mould
for each copy is out of the question, and the manufacture of a
piece mould that will draw off is also a long task, to say nothing
of making the casts themselves and cleaning them up. The so-
lution of all such difficulties is the gelatine or " glue " mould,
wThich is elastic, pliant, and yet keeps its shape perfectly. This
is how to make it :
Let us suppose we are to make a gelatine mould of a flattened
meteorite, eight inches in diameter and about three inches
thick. Take some potter's clay, or modeling clay, which has
been nicely worked up in a square lump, and is not wet enough
266 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
to be too sticky. With a small wire, cut it into slabs about
three- quarters of an inch thick, and with these cover the entire
object to the depth mentioned. Put the clay on everywhere
the same thickness, making- it conform to the irregularities of
the surface. This clay will presently be exactly replaced with
gelatine.
Having- coated the object as described, make a plaster Paris
mould of the whole of it, in two parts, which separate horizon-
tally around the outermost edge. When you make a plaster
mould of the upper half, erect a high cone of clay over the
centre of the meteorite as it lies flat upon the table, so that it
will make a funnel-shaped hole in the upper half of the mould,
through which you can pour in the gelatine. Of course the two
pieces of this plaster mould must fit nicely together, with coun-
tersunk holes. This plaster mould of the clay-covered object is
called the "jacket," and its use will soon be apparent. Now
for the gelatine.
Recipe for Gelatine Moulds. — The gelatine compound is made
by taking glue and glycerine in the following proportions,
varying the quantity to suit the size of the object : Of best
Irish glue, 3 pounds; glycerine, l£ pounds; and about 1| ounces
of white -wax. Dip the glue in water, and then roll it up over
night in several thicknesses of wet cloth, so as to soften it with-
out soaking it in water, which is an element to be kept out. In
the morning the glue will be soft. Procure a large-sized glue-
pot, or improvise one by putting a small tin pail in a larger
one, with water between, and in this put the glue and glycerine
and cook it up. Melt the wax separately, and pour it in after
the other is well mixed and hot. A gelatine mould can be
made of any degree of hardness by adding dry white zinc which
has been carefully ground in a mortar, but ordinarily none is
necessary.
To make the g-elatine mould the clay must all be taken off
the object, and«the latter washed clean. Lay the lower half of
the " jacket " upon the table, inside uppermost, and drive four
small wire hails into it at different points, allowing each one to
project just three-fourths of an inch, for the meteorite to rest
upon, and give space for the gelatine to flow underneath and
form that part of the mould. Now put the meteorite carefully in
MAKING MOULDS AND CASTS. 26?
place, resting1 on these nail-heads, and then put on the upper
half of the " jacket." Cord the jacket tightly together without
disturbing the position of the object inside. If there are any
cracks at the edges, fill them up with clay. Now pour in the
hot gelatine at the funnel-shaped hole in the upper half of the
jacket, until the mould is quite full. Let the mould stand two
hours to cool and harden ; then remove the upper half of the
" jacket." To get the object out, take a sharp knife and slit the
coating- of gelatine fully half -way round, so that the two halves
can be opened like an oyster, and the object lifted out. The
inside of the gelatine mould must now have a coating- to make
it impervious to the water in the plaster Paris.
Mix up the following :
1 teacupful of spirits of turpentine.
About 4 level teaspoonf uls of white lead.
About 1 teaspoonful of lightning dryer.
Mix this well, paint the inside of the mould with it, two coats, which makes the gela-
tine waterproof.
To make a cast, oil the inside of the mould with lard oil, put
the plaster jacket around it, so that it fits perfectly, and tie the
two pieces of the jacket firmly together to prevent a disaster
when the plaster begins to heat in the mould.
Mix your plaster with ice-water for the same reason, and you
will have no trouble. For irregular objects, the working of a
gelatine mould is perfection itself. It yields gracefully in com-
ing- out of the undercuts and around corners, takes every detail
perfectly, and in the jacket its shape is always the same. A
careful operator can make from twenty to fifty copies of a
cast in a single mould before its loss of sharpness necessitates
its abandonment.
CHAPTEE XXXV.
CASTS OF MAMMALS, FISHES, AND KEPTILES.
CASTING PARTS or MAMMALS IN THE FLESH. — Although it is
usually impossible to carry more than ten or fifteen pounds of
plaster into the field when you go off on a collecting trip, a
quantity sufficient, for a special purpose is often worth its
weight in silver dollars. But many a fine subject comes entire
to the laboratory, where the taxidermist can work his will upon
it. If I have never done any other good thing in my life, I be-
lieve I have at least taught some of our best American taxider-,
mists the usefulness and value of plaster casts taken from the
flesh. It is only a few hours' work to make a mould and cast of
the entire side of an animal as large as a large dog, or even a
lion, and still less to take half the head, or the nose, a fore leg,
or hind leg. Once we had an opportunity to cast the entire
head of an immense bull moose, and right greedily did we seize
it. The resultant cast has been of priceless value to us as an
exact record of the form of a wonderful head. If you wish to
do a fine piece of work, and have the animal in the flesh, by all
means make a cast of one whole side of it. It will repay its
cost ten times over. No record of form is equal to a cast, even
though it be a poor one. I once made a mould of one entire
side of the head of a large leopard in twenty minutes. It is
about an hour's wrork to make a good mould of the entire head
of a monkey, or two legs of a tiger.
The principles of this work have already been stated, and
there is little more to be said. If the specimen is a large one,
lay it upon the floor, build up around it with sand, or even wet
sawdust, and arrange to take one side of the animal's head, or
entire form, as the case may be. To take the two legs it will be
necessary to first fill plaster under each one to make a separate
CASTS OF MAMMALS, FISHES, AND REPTILES. 269
piece. In order to keep the plaster from sticking to the hair,
till the hair full of thick clay-water, or thin clay, and plaster
it down with the pasty mass so that the plaster Paris will not
run into it. Coat the whiskers and eyelids with warm wax, or
fill them full of clay. Do this thoroughly, to save the hair and
save trouble. A little hair will stick in the mould anyway, but
when you take the mould off, work the animal slowly and care-
fully from the mould, perhaps pouring in a little water to facil-
itate matters.
Always make a waste mould in these cases, to save time. If
your cast breaks in two while you are chiseling the mould off,
go ahead more carefully, and when you are done, chip the bro-
ken edges at the back, wet them with water, and stick them
together with plaster. Small casts can be stuck together with
shellac. If your mould breaks in pieces while you are taking it
off, don't be discouraged, but simply put the pieces together,
back them up with more plaster, and come up smiling for the
next round.
It is often necessary to cast skulls or teeth, to put in skins
that are being mounted, though it is better to carve a skull out
of soft wood.
CASTING FISHES. — Fishes are easy and interesting subjects to
cast.
Usually only one side is taken, and the cast is then mounted
on a flat slab, or perhaps on two brass standards. The full
method of procedure is as follows :
W.-ish off the mucus with alum- water. Put some dry alum on
the side to be cast, to harden the soft edges of the fins, and make
every scale stand out distinctly. Clean the fish carefully, close
the mouth, adjust the eye and the gills. Lay the fish on its
side, with the side to be cast uppermost. Take some modeling
clay, beat it out, and roll it into a smooth, square cake with par-
allel sides. With a small wire cut a section of this cake, and
place it under each fin, so that the fin will be held in position as
in life.
To make a piece mould, make it in three pieces, thus : Put up
a wall of clay around the head from the base of the dors;d fin
to the base of the anal fin, keeping the clay wall a littlo dis-
tance away from the head and body. With plaster Paris till
270 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
in the space thus left, up to the median line of the fish, but no
higher.
With a knife work the plaster under the edge of the fish, and
let it Harden ; thsn put two countersinks in each side. For the
main piece, mi:: some dry color in enough plaster to coat the
fish one-eighth of an inch thick, make it thin, and pour over
with a spoon. When covered thinly, blow hard upon it, all
over, to make it take the scales sharply ; then put on enough
more to make the colored coat an eighth of an inch thick. Let
this harden, then put on the thick coat of wiiite plaster, which
is to be chiseled off, as this is supposed to be a waste mould.
In making the cast, if it be possible make it before the mould
gets dry, so that the latter will chisel off easily. Pour the
mould nearly full of plaster, then set a piece of wood in at the
back to afford a means of screwing the cast to a panel, or in-
serting standards. After the cast is made it must, of course,
be carefully painted, which is another matter, and is treated
elsewhere.
CASTING REPTILES. — After all the detailed directions that have
been already given on this subject it is not necessary to speak
further of methods. Mr. Joseph Palmer, of the National Mu-
seum, has produced suoh pleasing and artistic representations
of reptiles of all sorts, especially serpents and tortoises, it would
seem that perfection in this line has been reached. His ser-
pents are all on imitation rocks, trees, or earth, and in about all
the attitudes they would assume in life. They are represented
as crawling, sleeping, fighting, striking, and threatening. By
the introduction of wires in the moulds while making the casts,
they are made to act quite naturally. Of course they have
besn carefully and artistically painted, and half the credit for
their beauty is therefore due to the colorist. Lizards of many
species, large and small, and also tortoises and turtles of every
American species, are thus represented with great success.
This interesting collection is well worthy of study ; but to the
taxidermist who is not also a first-rate artist in oil colors, tliis
method is beyond his powers.
PAET IV.— OSTEOLOGY.
CHAPTEE XXXVI.
COLLECTING SKELETONS.
IT is really strange that so few American collectors are taught
the scientific value of skeletons, and the need to collect them,
especially when in the haunts of rare animals. AVhile hundreds
of collectors gather bird skins by the cord, perhaps not one out
of the whole lot saves a rough skeleton. Any one who is wholly
unaccustomed to the preparation of skeletons is apt to stand
appalled at the thought of preparing one from the beginning;
and, indeed, the final work of cleaning and mounting is no
child's play. But let me assure you that, so far as the field work
is concerned, you can easily become a successful collector of
skeletons of all kinds, even though you may never learn to
clean and mount one. All you have to do in the field is to
"rough out" skeletons from the flesh, and dry them in com-
pact bundles for shipment.
A ROUGH SKELETON of a mammal, bird, reptile, or fish, is sim-
ply the complete bony framework of the body, from which the
most of the flesh has been cut away with a common knife, after
which the skeleton and remaining flesh has been dried prepara-
tory to its being, at some indefinite time in the future, taken in
hand by a professional osteologist. The work of preparation on
such specimens is very simple, and when once learned is easily
performed.
SELECTION OF SPECIMENS. — "When a choice is possible, select
large and perfect adult male specimens as subjects to be skele-
tonized. The skeletons of young animals are always imperfect
272 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
in development, do not properly represent a species, and arc
seldom valuable except for comparison with other specimens of
the same species. Very often a fine adult specimen has its skin
so badly torn by shot or bullets, or the skin covering is in such
a bad state of shedding-, moulting1, and the like, that the skin is
totally unfit for preservation. In such a case the preservation
of a fine perfect skeleton becomes a clear gain of one specimen
to the collector and to science.
A perfect skeleton is one in which not a bone is missing-, and
in which no substitutions have been made. But it is by no
means always possible to secure a wild animal without breaking-
some portion of its osteological anatomy. When a bone is bro-
ken, the best thing- to do is to supply it with a corresponding-
bone from an animal of similar size and age. Sometimes the
closet naturalist, who g-enerally thinks that rare wild animals
are gathered like berries, will grumble because a broken bone
has thus been replaced, and find fault with the size of the sub-
stitute, but that need not trouble the collector's conscience in
the least. I once shot a fine prong-horn antelope buck, skeleton-
ized it carefully, cut up the skeleton, and carried the whole of it
for three days attached to my saddle, while I rode a very restive
and dangerous horse, and also carried two blankets and a May-
nard rifle. That skeleton, thus earned, had some broken bones
supplied from another specimen. It finally wTent to Europe,
and fell into the hands of a closet naturalist, who blithely found
fault with the collector because of the supplied bones. Again,
when I once risked drowning- in order to enter a cave on a dan-
gerous sea-coast to collect g-uacharo birds, and got a goodly
number, a German closet naturalist complained bitterly because
a skin that was sent to him had two missing tail-feathers sup-
plied by two other feathers that were a trifle smaller than the
missing ones.
But I did once perform a feat in South America which filled
the souls of my friends at Ward's with wonder, and even admi-
ration. In collecting about half a dozen skeletons of capybara,
each of which I took care should be absolutely perfect, by some
brilliant manoeuvre I contrived to send home to the establish-
ment one skeleton which was the happy possessor of two left
forelegs and two left hind legs, but never a right one ; and in
COLLECTING SKELETONS. 27S
the language of the Old Testament, " his bones are there to this
day!"
SKELETONS OF MAMMALS : SMALL OBJECTS. — The smallest quad-
rupeds— such as bats, small rodents, shrews, and the like—
should be eviscerated, and preserved in alcohol, without being
skinned ; but each specimen should be fulty labeled. As a
general thing it is best, for various reasons, not to dry such
small carcasses.
For all mammals below the size of the Virginia deer, pro-
ceed as follows:
1. Remove the skin as expeditiously as possible, in order to
have a fair show at the skeleton.
2. If the skeleton is smaller than a fox, leave the legs attached
to the body, for convenience, until you have cut the flesh away
from them with your scalpel or pocket-knife, without any dis-
jointing. When all the legs have been thus roughly denuded
of flesh, cut them loose from the body and lay aside for the mo-
ment.
3. If the specimen is larger than a fox, cut off the legs from
the body, lay each one flat upon the ground, inside uppermost,
divide the flesh all the way along it directly over the bones, and
literally dissect the bones out of the mass of flesh, instead of
cutting the flesh away piece by piece. This is the quickest and
neatest way. The scapula must come off with the fore leg, and
be left attached to the humerus. Be sure you cut off all the
masses of flesh, but don't cut off the knee-pan, as you may easily
do if you are not watchful.
4. Now for the carcass. Hold it on its back, begin at the
breastbone, flake off the flesh from the sides of the body close
down to the ribs, until the backbone is reached. Cut off as
much flesh as you can (hurriedly) from along the backbone.
5. Next attack the abdomen. Beginning at the lower point of
the breastbone, detach the walls of the abdomen from the ends
of the short ribs, down to the lumbar vertebrae, and so on around
the iliac margin of the pelvis. Cut through the diaphragm
close up to where it is attached to the ribs, and remove at one
effort the entrails and vital organs.
G. Cut away the flesh from the pelvis, both inside and out, and
the flesh of the tenderloin from underneath the lumbar vertebra.
18
274
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
7. Cut the flesh from the thick portion of the tail.
8. Cut off the head at the first cervical vertebra, and clean
the skull as previously described elsewhere, but leave the Jiyoid
bone in its place.
9. Cut the flesh away from the neck vertebrae as well as you
can. Be careful not to cut the sternum (or breastbone), which
is soft cartilage, and easily cut ; nor the ends of any vertebral
processes, nor any soft bones.
10. If the skeleton is a small one, it is apt to get quite bloody
during the operation. Wash it clean, and if necessary soak it
in clear water for an hour or two. It will come all the whiter
for it in the end. Skeletons of ruminant animals are generally
clean enough without that.
11. Do not poison a rough skeleton with arsenical soap, nor
FIG. 66.— Rough Skeleton of a Small Animal. (After F. A. Lucas.)
put salt upon it ; so says Mr. Lucas, the osteologist of the Na-
tional Museum. The former has a tendency to prevent skele-
tons from properly macerating and coming white. Sprinkle dry
arsenic upon a skeleton, if anything is necessary to protect it
from Dermestes and other insects. Never put alum on a skele-
ton.
12. The last thing is to make up the skeleton into a small,
compact bundle, that will pack nicely and economically when
dry, and withstand some pressure without breakage. Put the
skull in the chest cavity. Fold up the upper joints of the legs,
put the foot of each in the pelvis, and the other end in the cav-
ity of the chest. Now tie all the legs tightly to the spinal
column. (See Fig. C6.) Bend the tail under the pelvis and tie
it fast also. Finally, hang the specimen up in the shade and
wind, so that it will dry quickty.
It will be observed that the above process leaves tho body of
COLLECTING SKELETONS. 275
the skeleton entire, and all the bones of each leg and foot united
by their natural ligaments. A skeleton prepared thus may
ultimately be mounted as a "ligamentary skeleton," or it may
be disjointed throughout, macerated, and mounted as a "dis-
articulate skeleton." Except for skeletons of bison, elk, and
other animals which are entirely too large to admit of transport-
ing their bodies whole, it is much the best to prepare all others
in the field as described above, and disarticulate some of them
afterward ; for this reduces to a minimum the chance of losing
some of the parts.
SKELETONS OF LARGE MAMMALS. — The process of roughing out
the skeletons of large mammals, 110 matter how large they may
be, is precisely the same as described above for small ones ; but
to make it possible to transport and box them, they must be cut
to pieces, or, I had better say, disjointed, for fear some zealous
partisan might interpret my words too literal!}', and go at a
valuable* skeleton with an axe. And right here let me publish
a law which is as fixed and unalterable as the laws of the Medes
and Persians, and admits of no exception :
In disarticulating a large skeleton, no maffcr ]/<»/• large, <ni axe or
ha f chef must never be used for any purpose whatever. Use nothing
but the knife, and in a few cases a small saw to separate the
sternum from the ends of the ribs.
To come down to the details of cutting up a large skeleton in
the field, and making it up into a number of separate bundles,
let us suppose that the skeleton lies before us, completely
roughed out, in accordance with previous advice. The bones of
each leg must be dislocated (at the " knees " in ruminant ani-
mals) either once or twice, so that the parts can be easily han-
dled. In a full-grown elephant the leg bones are so large it is
necessary to cut the ligaments at each joint, so that the scapula,
humerus, radius and ulna, and foot may each be handled separ-
ately.
Of course, the head is to be cut off at the first cervical verte-
bra. Then, by careful work, and much coaxing with the sharp
point of the knife, dislocate the spinal column just Avhere tin-
neck joins the body. At first this will bother you, but have
patience and you will soon learn how to do it easily and quickly.
In dislocating the spinal column, take hold of the neck, move it
276 . TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
backward and forward, and strain it a bit to see just where the
articulating- surfaces of the vertebral process are, so that you
can cut them. When your intelligence has made some headway
on the joint, then you may put forth a little main strength and
tear the vertebrae apart, but do not attempt this too soon.
The next thing is to cut off the ribs, and the first step toward
this is to cut out the sternum, or breastbone. (See Plate XX.)
This so-called bone is really cartilage, soft enough in a fresh
skeleton to cut on the outside, and in thin places, like cheese-
rind. It must be cut out in one piece, the same as may be seen
in the figure of the mounted skeleton, and the dotted line A B
shows where the cartilaginous ribs of the sternum join the bony
ribs that form the main arch of the thorax. At the points
marked by the dotted line, cut the two apart. I have never
found it necessary to use a saw for this work in a perfectly fresh
skeleton, but in dry ones a saw is necessary. When you come
to the short, or " floating ribs," as they are called, it will be
found that their cartilages are only attached weakly to the carti-
lages of the previous ribs, or else are altogether free. These
must be cut from the ribs and preserved with great care.
After the ribs have been cut free from the sternum, separate
them from the backbone, one by one, make them up into bun-
dles, and tie them up. The pelvis is to be separated from the
spinal column at the last lumbar vertebra ; and if necessary
the spinal column may be again dislocated about the middle.
Formerly it was my practice to poison all rough skeletons
with a thin wash of arsenical soap, to make them dry without
smelling badly, and to keep off the myriads of insects that the
shreds of flesh would naturally attract. Now, however, in
obedience to the mandates of Mr. Lucas, I have eschewed the
use of arsenical soap for this purpose, and recommend the use
of dry arsenic instead, which does not retard the cleaning of
the bones.
ROUGH SKELETONS OF BIRDS. — As in the case of a small mam-
mal, first remove the skin from the body ; but if the identity of
the bird is in doubt, leave the large tail feathers and the pri-
maries in place, for future reference. In fact, it is a good plan
to always leave the primaries and spurious quills on the wing,
for then there will be no danger that some of the small bones
COLLECTING SKELETONS.
277
of the last joint will get lost or cut away by mistake. More-
over, when you come to tie up the skeleton, the primaries will
afford valuable protection to the ribs.
With a bird, the entire skeleton should be roughed out be-
fore any disjointing" is done, and even then none is necessary,
save to cut off the legs of large birds, especially those with long
legs. Study carefully the accompanying figure of a bird skele-
FIG. 67.— Rongh Skeleton of a Bird. (After F. A. Lucae.)
ton (Fig. 67), and then it will be hardly necessary to say more
than to roughly, but carefully, cut off the flesh with a cartilage
knife or scalpel, and remove all the viscera. Look out for those
delicate little points on the neck vertebra?, and also be very
careful not to cut off those curious little appendages (called un-
cinate processes) that project backward from the middle of each
rib. Leave the hyoid bone in its place, and also the bony ring
surrounding the eyeball of the great blue heron, the owl, and
other birds of prey. If any portion of the windpipe reveals
any bony structure, the entire windpipe should be saved.
Whenever any tendons are found to be partly ossified, as they
will certainly prove to be in the " drumstick " of your Thanks-
giving turkey, leave them in place for the osteologist to do
with as he pleases.
IVJien in <t<>>/f>f (ilxmf any special part, give the osteologist the bene-
fit of the donhl IHJ Caving the special part for him.
If the bird is a large one, cut off the head, and after cleaning
it pack it away in the chest 'cavity. If the bird is small, you
can leave it attached to the neck, and remove the brain by bend-
ing the head down and cutting it half off from above, thus ex-
278 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
posing' the occipital opening1 at the back of the skull, through
which the brain may be drawn out.
After the skeleton has been roughed out, it should always be
cleaned by washing- it in a basin of water and brushing it
meanwhile with a soft tooth-brush. If blood is left on the
skeleton, the bones will absorb it, and become permanently dis-
colored thereby. The cleansing done, make the skeleton up into
a compact bundle by folding the wings naturally against the
body, bending- the neck down in some way so that it can be tied
upon the body, and either cutting off the legs and putting- them
into the thorax and pelvis, or leaving- them on and folding them
up as compactly as possible. Then tie the bundle up thoroughly
by passing- a light string many times around it, so that it can
never lose its compactness. Sprinkle it with dry arsenic, or wash
over with thin arsenical soap, and hang it up in the shade to dry.
SKELETONS OF BEPTILES.— After all the foregoing directions, it
surely is unnecessary to describe, in detail, the skeletonizing of
reptiles. The principles are precisely the same as already set
forth for birds and mammals. Wherever special bones or car-
tilages are found, as in the abdominal cartilaginous ribs of
crocodilians and certain lizards, they must be carefully saved
whole and in situ. With large skeletons, take whatever means
are necessary to get them, while fresh, into compact shape for
drying and packing. With large crocodiles and alligators, the
neck, legs, head, and tail all go nicely inside the body, as I
have proved scores of times. The skeleton of a large serpent is
easily done up in a close coil, by which it not only takes com-
pact shape, but the ribs are well protected. With serpents, do
not attempt to cut the flesh from between the ribs, for it is de-
sirable that it should remain.
On each rib of a crocodilian there is a strange, flat piece of
cartilage attached to the posterior edge at the middle of the rib,
and projecting backward, quite overlapping the next rib, assure
as the world the reptilian development of what in the full-
fledged bird becomes a bony imcinate process. You will soon
discover this in skeletonizing your first crocodilian, and be sure
to respect its anatomy.
It surely is superfluous to say that every skeleton must be
carefully and fully labeled, and in a substantial way.
COLLECTING SKELETONS. 279
FISHES.— This subject has been treated in Chapter IX. (Col-
lecting Fishes).
SKELETONIZING CETACEANS. — The rough skeleton of a cetacean
-porpoise, blackfish, whale, and the like— is the bloodiest,
greasiest, nastiest specimen the collector ever "has to prepare.
Nevertheless, they are necessary evils, and fortunately their
structure is so simple that their roughing out is not a difficult
matter. The vertebral column terminates in a point, there being
no bones in the flukes of the tail, or the dorsal fin. The best
way to operate is to split the body open along the middle of
the back all the way from head to tail, and carve the flesh away
until you reach the vertebral column, and after that the ribs.
The vertebral column must be cut in two in two or more
places, according to its size. Midway between the last pair of
ribs and the tail, and underneath the vertebral column, lie two
very useless and absurd little ossifications known as the pelvic
bones. They are called pelvic bones because that happens to
be a handy name. They bear about as much resemblance to a
genuine pelvis as a cigarette does to a locomotive. They are
so small that it takes an expert with a search-warrant to find
them, and, for my part, I always consider their loss a real gain
to the cause of science. Of course the scapula and flipper, the
ribs and the sternum, must each in turn be cut away, cleaned
as well as possible, and bundled up to go with the head and the
three sections of the vertebral column.
PACKING SKELETONS. — All rough skeletons, skulls, etc. (as well
as all skins) must be thoroughly dry when packed, or they will
sweat, soften up, smell offensively, and spoil any dry skins, or
other perishable objects that may be packed with them. Skele-
tons should always be packed in tight boxes, so that rats and
mice cannot get into them and gnaw the small bones. Tie
some soft material over the teeth of separate skulls to save
them from getting broken. Put the largest skeletons and
skulls at the bottom, and use hay, straw, or excelsior for filling.
Of course the small and fragile specimens will be put in the
protected corners and crevices between the larger objects, and,
as before remarked, dry skeletons that have been made up into
compact bundles will stand a very considerable amount of
pressure without breaking.
280 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
COLLECTING FOSSIL SKELETONS. — The vertebrate zoologist glo-
ries in the skeleton of almost any living1 species of vertebrate,
but a fossil skeleton he fairly worships. The more of previous
theories it upsets, the dearer it is. If it is a reptile with
feathers on its tail, a bird with teeth, or a scientific what-is-it,
as was the gigantic megatherium, it is simply canonized. Be-
ware, then, red-handed hunter of living species, how you
recklessly pass by a bit of bone protruding from a " cut bank ''
beside some stream, for you know not the day and the hour
when you may touch elbows with His Mysterious Highness,
the Missing Link.
The tertiary deposits of the United States contain the fossil
remains of many magnificent vertebrates, impossible even to
mention here. Very often huge bones and tusks of the masto-
don are unearthed in well or ditch digging, and before they
receive proper attention are exposed to the air and allowed to
crumble into dust in a few hours. If a fossil bone is very soft
when dug up, it will crumble in a short time unless properly
cared for. If this is likely to be its fate, cover it up again with-
out delay, to keep the air from it until you are ready to pre-
serve it. To accomplish this, prepare a kettle of glue water
(simply hot water with a little glue dissolved in it) and wrap
the bone tightly from end to end with an abundance of twine.
Then with a ladle or large spoon pour the glue water over the
bone or tusk, gradually, but continuously, so that it will soak
in, and when dry, it will bind together the weak material and
form a hard shell of some thickness and protect the form of the
bone intact. This will often save a fossil which would other-
wise fall into countless tiny fragments in a few hours.
If a skeleton or portion thereof is embedded in a matrix of
hard rock, do not attempt to work it out fully in the field. That
is work for the laboratory — and a very good one at that, some-
times requiring costly tools, much skill, and plenty of time to
chip away the surrounding rock.
Oftentimes the fossil remains of a fish, small reptile, or mam-
mal are uncovered bodily by the removal of the slab of rock
which has covered it for ages, like a blanket. In such cases
do not attempt to pick the bones, one by one, out of their rest-
ing-place, but procure the necessary tools, cut out the entire
COLLECTING SKELETONS. 281
slab of rock which contains the skeleton, and keep it in one
piece forever. Such specimens have a good market value in
cash, which will well repay the care and labor bestowed upon
them ; but at the same time a novice should not make the very
common mistake of supposing that a fossil which is new f<>
him must necessarily be worth its weight in gold. If you wish
to sell any good fossils, you will get a fair valuation by offer-
ing them to Professor Henry A. Ward, Rochester, N. Y.
CHAPTEK XXXVH.
CLEANING LARGE SKELETONS BY MACERATING.
THERE are two ways to clean the skeletons of large mammals :
(1) by boiling- the bones, and (2) by maceration. The first is
short, cleanly, and agreeable ; but the skeleton produced by it is
sure to be full of grease, and is anything1 but white and pleas-
ing to look upon when mounted. The boiling process is also
detrimental to the texture of the bone. The professional oste-
ologist, to whom a greasy bone in a mounted skeleton is an un-
pardonable offence, never thinks of boiling a skeleton to get the
flesh off, for the reason that the grease is boiled into the bone
instead of out of it. Cleaning by boiling is permissible only
under exceptional circumstances. If you wish a particular
skeleton for a special purpose within a very short time, or if you
are so situated that macerating a skeleton is impossible then
boiling is excusable, but steaming is far preferable.
PREPARING A SKELETON FOR MACERATION.— It is, of course, to
be understood that it is only the skeletons that are too large to
be scraped and mounted as " ligamentous skeletons " that are
to be macerated, bleached, and afterward articulated with wire.
The firstthing to do is to cut out the sternum in one piece, as al-
ready shown in Plate XXI., poison it in arsenic water, and hang
it away to dry and be scraped afterward. A sternum must never
be macerated, for it is so soft the cartilaginous framework would
be entirely destroyed. The skeleton must now be cut com-
pletely to pieces, excepting that it is not necessary to separate
all the vertebrae of the spinal column. The ribs must be cut off,
and the joints of the legs cut asunder. The large bones of the
legs contain marrow, and of these bones each one must have a
large hole drilled in each end on the face of the articulating
surface, so that when mounted the holes will not show. These
holes are to afford the water access to the interior of the bone.
CLEANING LARGE SKELETONS BY MACERATING.
MACERATING AND CLEANING. — The maceration of a skeleton is a
question of time as compared with eternity. Procure a wooden
barrel or keg large enough to contain the entire skeleton,
knock the head out and see that there are no nails, nor any
other metal anywhere on the inside to stain and discolor the
bones. Pack the skeleton closely in the empty barrel, fill it up
with water and let it stand. In a few days its offence, like
Othello's, " is rank, and smells to heaven." But that is no mat-
ter, provided your barrel has no neighbors. Let it stand for
four months, six mouths, a year, or twro years if need be, until
every particle of fleshy matter on the bones has disintegrated
and become a pulp. Keep the barrel covered, and when the
water evaporates and the bones on top are about to be exposed,
fill up with water and keep the bones always covered. If a
skeleton is very bloody, it is well to soak it for a week in salt
water to dissolve the blood-corpuscles. Then it may be macer-
ated as directed above. The odor will be horrible, but if you
are going to study bones you must not mind that.
When you find upon examining the bones that the flesh has
totally disappeared from them, leaving them dark-colored or
even black, but without any fleshy matter upon them, they are
then to be taken out. Pour off the water, place the entire con-
tents of the barrel in a large sieve-bottomed tray, and wash the
bones thoroughly. When that has been done, put them in a
large tub of boiling water, and keep them in warm water while
you scrape all the bones, one by one, with your bone-scraper,
and scrub them with a stiff brash, going over the entire sur-
face, and washing them meanwhile in the warm water. The in-
terior of each of the large leg bones must be washed out with a
strong syringe, and every cavity in the vertebrae must be care-
fully scraped out.
BLEACHING. — Having carefully scraped and washed the bones,
the entire skeleton is now to be soaked for a short time, the
length of time varying according to the size and age of tin-
skeleton, in a solution of chloride of lime and water. To make
this of the proper strength, dissolve about two or three ounces
of chloride of lime in a barrel of water. Bones of young or im-
mature animals must not be left in this solution as long as
those of old specimens. Young bones are soft and porous, and
284 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
the chloride of lime will soon destroy them if they remain in it
too long".
The following1 skeletons, adult in every case, require to be
left in this solution a length of time as stated herewith : Dog1, G
hours ; sheep, 6 hours ; deer, 8 ; buffalo, 12 ; elephant, 12.
After remdving the bones from this bath, wash them with
clear water, lay them in slat-bottomed trays, with cheese-cloth
above the slats, without piling- one bone upon another, and ex-
pose them a number of days in the hot sun. After they have
bleached on the upper side, turn them over. If it does not rain
upon them occasionally, they should be sprinkled with wrater,
late in the evening or early in the morning, to hasten the
process.
Great care is necessary to keep the tiny carpal, tarsal, and
phalangeal bones from getting lost. When the bones are white
as chalk, or nearly so, tie the parts of each skeleton in a stout-
paper bag by itself, label it, and put it away until you are ready
to mount it.
The sternum is to be soaked in clear water, with a little wash-
ing soda to cut the grease, until it is soft, and then scraped the
same as the bones of a ligamentary skeleton, which process will
be described in the next chapter.
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
CLEANING AND MOUNTING SMALL SKELETONS.
THE skeletons of small vertebrates should never be macerated
previous to mounting1, for the reason that their complete re-
articulation would be a practical impossibility. The bones
must be left united at the joints by their natural ligaments,
which when dry become quite hard, and with the aid of either
one or two small brass standards will hold the entire skeleton
erect and in proper shape. Skeletons mounted thus, with the
parts attached to each other by their own dried ligaments in-
stead of wires, are called ligameutous, or ligamehtary, skeletons.
All mammals smaller than a large fox, all birds smaller than a
small ostrich, all turtles, lizards, iguanas, serpents, crocodil-
ians, and all fishes are mounted in this way. Fortunately it is
possible to clean to perfect whiteness the skeletons of almost
all these subjects without putting them through the maceration
process, which resolves everything into its component parts.
DRYING BEFORE MOUNTING. — In order to have a skeleton so
that it will scrape to the best advantage and become as white as
possible, every ligamentary skeleton must be dried before it is
finally cleaned and mounted. In a perfectly fresh skeleton the
cpiphyses and ligaments are so soft the operator would find it
hard to keep from destroying them with his keen-edged steel
scrapers, and the smaller bones and cartilaginous members
would also be in great danger of mutilation in the same way.
When a skeleton dries, all these soft portions harden, and when
afterward the skeleton is soaked in clear water for two or three
days, or longer as may be necessary, the flesh quickly softens
so that you can scrape it all away without encroaching on the
frame-work, and the ligaments at the joints arc just soft enough
that a portion of it may be scraped or trimmed away, and yet
leave sufficient to hold each joint together.
286
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
RELAXING A DRY SKELETON. — As intimated above, this is ac-
complished simply by soaking1 the specimen in clear water
until its joints are pliable, and the flesh upon the bones is soft
enough to scrape off. In order that the specimen should not
become offensive and disagreeable to work upon, it must not
soak long enough for decomposition to set in, for that is the
first stage of maceration. Therefore, scraping should begin
just as -soon as the flesh is soft enough to be readily removed.
SCRAPING A LIGAMENTARY SKELETON. — The removal of the flesh
and other animal matter from a small skeleton is accomplished
by scraping the bones with various chisel-edged scrapers
specially designed for this work, and by clipping and trim-
FIG. 68.— Steel Bone-scrapers.
ming on the joints with either curve-pointed or straight scis-
sors. The principles to be learned in skeleton-scraping are
comparatively few and simple. In the first place, a sufficient
quantity of the connecting ligament at each joint must be left
to hold the two bones together in proper shape when the
specimen dries. This must not be left in a thick, unsightly
mass, but requires to be scraped and trimmed down so that it
is reduced to as small a quantity as will serve the purpose. In
scraping the flesh off the main stem of a bone, such as the
humerus, for example, always begin at the end and scrape
toward the middle. The skeletons of turtles, lizards, and the
like are an exception to this rule by reason of their structure,
and should be scraped from the middle toward each end. If
CLEANING AND MOUNTING SMALL SKELETONS. 287
you scrape from the middle of a mammalian or avian bone to-
ward either end, before you are aware of it, you have loosened
the attachment of the ligament, and have nothing left to hold
the joint together. By beginning1 on the ligament itself, and
working away from it, you can scrape it down so thin at the
point of attachment that its identity is quite lost, and the point
where it ends is hardly visible. This principle applies to the
scraping of all ligamentary skeletons, except a few reptiles.
In cleaning bird skeletons beAvare of injuring the little tack-
like points which project downward from each of the cervical
vertebrae. Have a care also for the soft bones of the coccyx,
and the uncinate process which projects backward from the pos-
terior edge of each rib. In fishes the greatest difficulty lies in
leaving the ribs attached to the remainder of the skeleton, for
if the operator is at all as the writer used to be in the days of
his youth, he will be prone to scrape some of the ribs loose,
and be obliged to glue them in place in the dry skeleton, with
glue and cotton batting that has been clipped up finely with ;i
sharp pair of scissors.
While a small skeleton is undergoing the scraping process it
must not be allowed to get dry until it is finally set up in posi-
tion. When the skeleton is not being worked upon, it must be
kept soaking in clean water ; but remember that this cannot go
on very long, or maceration Avill set in, the ligaments will give
way, and the bones will all come apart. A little borax in the
water serves to arrest decomposition, and will allow a skeleton
to remain soaking for several days longer than could otherwise
be allowed. After a skeleton has been well scraped, in order
to get it as white as possible and free from grease, it must be
treated with
JAVELI,E WATER.
% pound chloride of lime.
1 pound common washing soda.
1 gallon of boiling water.
Keep this on hand in a glass-stoppered jar, in the dark. In
using it, draw off a small quantity in a broad, shallow, earthen
dish. Lay every small skeleton in it, and with a soft tooth-
brush of the right size, brush all the bones thoroughly for
about five minutes. At the end of that process wash the skele-
288 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
ton thoroughly with clear water, and perhaps it is then ready
to mount.
Often the bones of a small skeleton contain an inordinate
amount of grease. The easiest and simplest way to remove it
is to soak the greasy bones for several days or weeks, as may be
necessary, in a jar of pure naphtha.
MOUNTING A SMALL SKELETON. — The skeleton of every bird,
mammal, and reptile requires to have the spinal cord replaced
by a stout zinc wire, to give both strength and rigidity to the
structure. Zinc wire is necessary because iron wire will rust, and
brass wire is too expensive to use when something cheaper and
better is obtainable. If you cannot procure zinc wire, use good
galvanized iron wire. For very large specimens you may use
iron wire, but it must be covered with two coats of asphaltnm,
applied with a brush, like black paint. After inserting the
wire the full length of the cavity of the spinal cord, leave
enough of the end protruding beyond the first vertebra of the
neck to afford a means for the attachment of the skull. The
extra length to be allowed should always be nearly equal to the
lateral depth of the brain cavity.
ATTITUDE. — It is often somewhat difficult to decide upon the
attitude the. skeleton is to have when finished. The possibili-
ties in this line are extensive, and the result depends entirely
upon the character of the subject, and the knowledge and good
taste of the operator. In the first place, the position of the
skeleton must be a correct representation of some characteristic
attitude of the species. For example, a sloth skeleton should
hang underneath a branch; a monkey should be climbing, or
walking on a stout bough ; a hyena should sneak and crouch ;
a passerine bird should always perch, while the penguins and
the auks must stand erect on flat pedestals. If the young oste-
ologist can do so, it will pay him well to travel several hundred
miles, if need be, to see the beautiful, and even elegant, collec-
tion of skeletons and other preparations in Mr. F. A. Lucas's
Department of Comparative Anatomy in the National Museum,
all of the specimens in which have been prepared, mounted
and displayed by Mr. Lucas and his assistant, Mr. Joseph W.
Schollick. I know of no other osteological collection which in
the beauty and scientific accuracy of mounting, and exhibition
CLEANING AND MOUNTING SMALL SKELETONS. 289
arrangement of its specimens, can be considered equal to this.
The museum-builder may well consider it a model of its kind.
Every skeleton, from that of a tiny humming-bird to a whale
forty-eight feet long, is as nearly perfect as human skill can
make it, and the variety of the characteristic attitudes repre-
sented in the smaller species makes this collection a particu-
larly attractive one.
PROCESS WITH MAMMALS. — We will assume that the skeleton
has been carefully scraped, and is now ready for mounting.
The successive steps in this work from start to finish are about
as follows :
1. In case the skeleton has been dried after scraping, as is
often done, it must be soaked in clear water until the ligaments
are relaxed.
2. Cut a zinc or galvanized iron wire of the right length and
size to replace the spinal marrow, and long enough that the
upper end of it will project beyond the axis into the brain
cavity of the skull. Sharpen one end of this wire so that you
can force it well down into the sacrum, and insert it in its place
in the spinal column.
3. Bend the vertebral column to its permanent shape. In
doing this, draw the sternum well forward so that the ribs will
spread out, and show a chest cavity of the right size for inflated
lungs. If you are not careful in this regard, the chest cavity
will be too narrow.
4. Hang the body in a frame made of light strips of wood, as
shown in the accompanying plate. Let the body hang at just
the right height from the pedestal to receive the legs (Plate
XX.).
5. Space the ribs carefully by starting a thread from the neck,
and taking a turn around each rib from the first to the last,
finally making fast the remaining end of the thread to one of
the lumbar vertebrae.
6. Put on each hind leg by drilling a small hole straight
through the head of the femur and the socket of the pelvis
(innominate bone), through which a small brass wire is to be
passed and clinched down closely at each end, to hold the head
of the femur firmly in place.
7. Place each leg in the attitude chosen for it, plant the foot
19
290 TAXIDERMY ATSTD ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
according to its osteological character, and pin each toe in its
proper place, as shown in the accompanying- plate. The leg
must be held in place by attaching- threads to it, and making
them fast to the various parts of the g-allows.
8. In putting on the foreleg-, the position of the scapula must
be defined with accuracy, in order to avoid placing it too low or
too high, and thus making- an incorrect representation of the
height of the animal. Bear in mind that the scapula never lies
prone upon the ribs, but is separated from them by a cushion
of muscle. It is therefore necessary to leave a certain space
between ribs and scapula.
9. Next cut two stiff brass wires of the proper length for the
two standards that must support the skeleton (see A A and B B
in Plate XX.). To make the U-shaped fork at the upper end
of each standard, to clasp the vertebral column, heat one end of
the 'rod red-hot, and plunge it into cold water, which softens
the metal. Now put it in a vise, and with a hack-saw split the
rod down the middle as far from the end as necessary. Finish
neatly by rounding off the ends with a fine file, and bending
them in shape with the pliers. The lower end must have a
thread cut on it an inch or so in length, a neat brass " rosette "
screwed upon it (B) to do duty 011 the top of the pedestal, and a
small brass nut made to screw on underneath the pedestal, to
hold the standard firmly upright. These standards need not be
put in place under the skeleton until it is mounted finally on its
handsomely polished, permanent exhibition pedestal.
10. Mr. Lucas has two methods for attaching a small skull to
the skeleton. One is to cut a piece of cork to fit snugly in the
occipital hole of the skull (foramen magnum), then pierce a hole
through its centre, and fit it tightly on the projecting- end of
the vertebral wire, close up to the first cervical vertebra (the
axis). The cork thus becomes stationary, and the skull may be
put in place and removed at will.
The other method is to place the skull exactly in position on
the skeleton, fitting it closely to the axis. Then drill a small
hole through each side of the axis in such a manner that in its
passage from top to bottom the drill will also pass through the
occipital condyle of the skull. By fitting a wire through each
of these holes the skull will be held fast in position so long as
CLEANING AND MOUNTING SMALL SKELETONS. 291
the skeleton remains in its place, right side up. If the skeleton is
to be packed for shipment, the skull (unless it be very small
and light) must be taken off, wrapped, and packed separately
for safety in transit.
11. If any bones have been broken, they must now be re-
paired, either by gluing- them together, or by joining Avith a
short wire fitted into the axis of each piece, and the missing
PALE BAT.
/i?JTHROZOUSPAI-UDUSlLtCc~lc)/IALL[H.-
23.034
'CoUecledby L. fielding
FIG. 69.— Skeleton of a Bat, as exhibited by Mr. Lncas.
particles of bone may be restored by a filling of best sinew glue
mixed with plaster Paris into a paste, and applied hot, so that
it will adhere. As it cools it can be shaped properly, and when
thoroughly dry and hard, its surface must be dressed down
Avith a fine file and sand-paper until the form of the bone is
once more perfect. This is Avork Avhich very often calls for
considerable skill in the operator, but the process itself is a
very simple one.
If ligaments are missing and a small bone is completely d<>-
tachetl, it should be put on as follows : Procure some fine cotton
202
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
batting-, cut it up very finely with the scissors, then apply some
hot glue to the joint, lay a bit of clipped cotton upon it, and
work it into the glue so that when dry it will form a false liga-
ment and hold the bone firmly in its place without attracting
any attention to the
fact that the liga-
ment has been made
for the occasion.
12. Finally, trans-
fer each skeleton to
its permanent .ped-
estal, which we will
assume has been pre-
pared while the spec-
imen has been dry-
ing. Mr. Lucas puts
all his small skele-
tons on handsome
ebonized pedestals,
which are the thing
par excellence. The
limbs for his climb-
ing animals, and the
thin, black boards
for his bat skeletons
are also ebonized.
The illustration on
page 291 (Fig. 69)
shows one of his bat
skeletons complete,
as it stands in its
case, bearing a label
of black letters on an olive-gray card, with no ornamentation.
In the final mounting the standards are put in place, and the
upper end of each fitted fast to the backbone. Each toe is
fixed firmly in its place, and held down by the bent-over end of
a headless pin, or by having a pin put through it, and cut off
close down to the bone.
CAUTIONS AND EXCEPTIONS. — It is only the tiny skeletons, such
CLEANING AND MOUNTING SMALL SKELETONS. 2!):>
FIG. 71. —Wiring a Skeleton Wing.
as mice, shrews, small squirrels, and the like, that can safely be
mounted without standards. To be sure, a large cat skeleton
run, be mounted on its own legs, without any standards, and so
can a man drink a pint of bad whiskey ; but in each case the
falling from grace will be in about the same degree, if not the
same in kind also. In long-continued moist weather, liga-
ments are apt to soften and let large unsupported skeletons
come down, without neatness,
but plenty of despatch.
BIEDS. — The foregoing
principles, which have been
described in detail for small
mammals, apply so fully and
with such complete general
similarity to birds, that it is
only necessary to add the two
accompanying illustrations.
EEPTILES. — Serpents. - - The
skeletons of serpents should
always be scraped and mount-
ed as liganientary specimens, and not macerated. The skeleton
should be supported on from three to five low brass standards
clasping the vertebral column at proper intervals, the body
curved naturally, and the ribs spread out and spaced evenly
as in life, according to the curves of the body. The skeleton
looks best when placed low down on the pedestal. The ribs
must be spaced with threads where the ligaments are soft, but
Avhen dry require no wires. The skeleton may be mounted in
any life-like attitude, either coiled or in motion.
Lizards.— Small species are to be treated the same as small
mammals.
Crocodiles and AUujators. — It is best that all saurian skele-
tons, even the largest, should be scraped and mounted without
maceration, on account of the elaborate cartilaginous sternum
and false ribs. The head requires a special standard, and the
tail requires a pair, while the tip of the latter is to be pinned
down with a wire. Of course the feet must rest down on the
pedestal as in life. One thing which Avould greatly enhance the
scientific value of every crocodile and alligator skeleton would
294
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
be the preparation and display, in its proper place, of one side
of the skin of the back with its wonderful shield of bony plates
nicely articulated together. This remarkable covering of the
vital organs seems to have been specially designed to ward ofi
glancing bullets, and it has saved the lives of thousands of
crocodilians. (Of
course this shield is
not proof against a
bullet fired squarely
against it.) So far,
all collectors and os-
teologists have ig-
nored this remarka-
ble feature of the
saurians, but it should
have the attention it
deserves.
Turtles and Tor-
toises.— The skeleton
of a tortoise, if mount-
ed on its feet in a life-
like attitude, has the
best part of its anat-
omy concealed by its
shell. This difficulty
Mr. Lucas meets oc-
casionally by sawing
out and laying back
one-half the carapace,
to expose the interior. The commonest method, however, is
that shown in the accompanying illustration (Fig. 72), which is
self-explanatory. The plastron is hinged at one side, furnished
with a latch, and opens like a door. The skeleton is mounted
on a single standard, which is split at the upper end like a Y,
the arms bent to fit the curvature of the shell, and riveted to the
carapace. Each leg is held in place by a small wire attached to
the shell at its edge.
FISHES. — There is nothing in the mounting of fish skeletons
that has not been fully described in the foregoing pages. Of
Fig. T2.— Skeleton of Turtle, as Exhibited.
CLEANING AND MOUNTING SMALL SKELETONS. 295
course fish skeletons are never macerated, but must be scraped
and mounted with their natural ligaments in place. Each
skeleton requires two brass standards, one clasping the verte-
bral column close to the tail, the other near the head. A very
long fish, or one with a large skull, requires three standards,
one for the skull and one for the middle of the body. Where
only two are used for r, large fish, the head requires to be sup-
ported by a wire running from the centre of the backbone.
CHAPTEE XXXIX.
MOUNTING A LARGE DISARTICULATED SKELETON.
IT will be well for anyone who intends to mount a large skele-
ton, if he has not already a fair knowledge of osteology, to take
some book which contains a description of the skeleton, for ex-
ample, of the domestic cow, and familiarize himself with the
names of the various bones and the different anatomical terms
used in describing them. In fact it is next to impossible to
describe the process of mounting a skeleton without making
use of quite an array of technical terms.
In order to make our description of this intricate process as
clear as possible, we will choose as our typical subject the
skeleton of an American bison, and go through with it in de-
tail, aided by an abundant supply of illustrations. We of course
assume that the macerating, cleaning, and bleaching has been
done.
In mounting a disarticulated skeleton, begin with the verte-
bral column as the key to the situation. It is, in point of fact,
the keel upon which the whole structure is to be built. The
vertebrae should be arranged, each in its place, and then they
should be numbered with pen and ink on the anterior articulat-
ing surface of the body of each one, beginning with the first
vertebra in front of the sacrum. This vertebra (the last lumbar)
should be marked No. 1, the next in front No. 2, and so on to
the axis.
The next step consists in boring two holes through the sacrum
from its under surface (Fig. 73, a, a) to its anterior articulating
surface (b, b), and these holes should be continued on through
the body of each of the succeeding vertebrae to the axis. They
should come out underneath that vertebra (the axis), where the
wires which pass through all these holes are afterward to be
MOUNTING A LA11GE DISARTICULATED SKELETON". 297
twisted together. The holes should be somewhat larger than
the brass wires which are to pass through them.
It is necessary to mark the place for starting the drill into
the posterior surface of each vertebra by fitting two articulating
surfaces together, and passing the drill through the holes al-
ready made. The points at which the drill should come out on
the anterior surface of a vertebra should be marked with a lead
pencil. The beginner will find some difficulty in making the
drill come through at precisely the right spot. The greatest
difficulty will be experienced in getting these holes through the
cervical vertebrae.
When the axis is reached, bore the holes so that they will
come out underneath, about half way between each extremity of
the vertebra, and about three-fourths of an inch apart.
It is just as well to now bore the holes through which the
wires which fasten the axis and atlas together are to pass,
though these need not be actually united until the remainder
of the spinal column has been articulated. The wires uniting
the atlas and axis are smaller than those passing through the
spinal column. The holes for these wires are made by boring
two of them through each of the two surfaces by which the axis
articulates with the atlas. These holes should come out under-
neath the axis. Then, placing the axis and atlas together,
mark on the atlas the places through which the holes are to
pass by running the drill through each of the holes already
made.
The next thing to be done is to cut pieces of artificial carti-
lage, called "buffle,"' to fit the posterior articulating surface of
the body of each vertebra, and each piece should be fastened to
the vertebra to which it belongs by a small wire nail through
its centre. The holes in each vertebra should be continued
straight on through the false cartilage. Now cut a brass wire
three times the length of the spinal column, double it, pull it
straight, pass the two ends through the sacrum, and so on for
ward through all the vertebrae.
When the vertebrae have all been strung on the two wires and
tightened up, it will be seen that the spinal column assumes a
curve approximating very nearly to the natural one. Mark
this curve with chalk on a table or a board.
298
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
Unstring the vertebrae from the wire. Then take a square
rod of iron, a foot or so longer than the" spinal column, and
over which each of the vertebra will fit easily.
Have the blacksmith flatten out one end into
a sort of spear, so that it will fit snugly in
the spinal canal of the sacrum (Fig. 73, c).
Drill a hole through the under surface of
the sacrum, and on through the iron rod.
Into this a brass pin is to be fitted at d.
Bend the iron rod to correspond exactly with
the curve previously marked with chalk on
the board. Paint the rod black, and when it
has dried place it again in the sacrum, drive
in the brass pin, leaving1 enough of the end
exposed to be seized with a pair of pliers and
pulled out if desired. Now string the verte-
brae over the rod and wires. If all fit prop-
erly they can then be
unstrung1 prepara-
tory to attaching1 the
ribs to them.
Each rib should
have a hole bored
Fio. 73.— The Sacrum and
Spinal Rod.
through its lower
end at the middle,
to come out on the inner surface (Fig.
74, b, b). Through these holes wires are
to pass, as seen in the accompanying
figure, and to these wires the sternum
is presently to be attached.
Having1 arranged the ribs so that you
know the place of each, take the first
pair, and the first dorsal vertebra to
which this pair attaches. Bore a holo
with the drilling1 machine through the
rib, beginning at the centre of the ar-
ticular surface of the tubercle of the
rib, directing1 the drill so that it will come out on the under
side (Fig. 74, c, c) ; then drill a hole through the liead of the
FIG. 74.— The Attachment of the
Ribs to a Vertebra.
w
§
C-,
MOUNTING A LARGE DISARTICULATED SKELETON. 299
rib (d, d). Now fit the rib to the vertebra, and with a small awl,
a sharp -pointed wire, or drill, mark, through the holes already
made, the points on the articular surface of the vertebra through
which the holes should be drilled (a, a). Bore similar holes
through the rib of the opposite side, then through the vertebra
at the points marked, and the wire will pass through as in the
figure.
Continue this same process for the remaining ribs. It will be
found, however, that the process of carrying a single wire
through the heads of both ribs and the anterior portion of the
body of the vertebra cannot be continued with all. In the last
of the dorsal vertebrae the wires will have to be put through the
head of the rib and the pedicles of the vertebra? into the neural
canal.
Make a loop on the end of each wire, as at a, a, Fig. 74, and
put the ribs on each vertebra as they belong, having only one
end of the wire — the one on which is made a double loop-
pulled up snugly. The other end of the wire should be left a
few inches in length, but bent slightly close to the rib, to hold
the latter in place.
Tho innominate bones should be attached to the sacrum
either by two brass bolts, one passing through each side at
about the middle of the articular surfaces between the sacrum
and each ilium, or by passing a heavy double wire through
each of these places. Before tightening permanently, apply
" plaster-glue " (the mixture of glue and plaster Paris already
described) to the articular surfaces between the sacrum and ilia,
thus when dry making the pelvis firm.
Now that the ribs are attached to the vertebra?, and the in-
nominate bones to the sacrum, proceed to string the vertebras
again on the wires and rod. The atlas can now be attached to
the axis by passing wires through the holes previously made,
after which the wires are to be twisted firmly together.
"NVhen all the vertebrae with their ribs attached have been put
in place, hang the backbone to a framework similar to that
used for suspending the alligator (Plate XIV.), or, what is much
better, to the ceiling, by two small ropes attached at the neck
and pelvis.
With the pliers now twist tightly together the wires under
300
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
the axis, then take a screw-driver and work between each pail
of vertebrae from underneath, beginning with the last lumbar,
and prying1 back toward the sacrum. By the time you have
reached the axis a considerable space will have been gained.
Shorten the wires by twisting- them, and continue this process
until the vertebrae all fit snugly tog-ether, and are tight one
against the other.
The next step is to put on the sternum, which has been
soaked in water containing a little wrashing soda, and thus
made flexible. Of course it has been previously cleaned by the
scraping process. A hole should be bored through the end of
each sternal rib. coming out on the inner
surface. The sternum is suspended tem-
porarily by strings attached to the verte-
bral column, and the single wires that
have previously been placed through the
end of each rib are now run, one by one,
through the end of the sternal rib it is to
support.
Now space the ribs temporarily with a
string that will hold each one of them
exactly in its place. Having done this,
two brass wires can now be used to hold
the ribs permanently in place, running
them on each side from the inferior pro-
cess of the last cervical vertebrae to the transverse process of
some one of the lumbar vertebra, or to the pelvis. What is much
better for a large skeleton, because it is both firmer and more ele-
gant, is a long, narrow strip of polished brass on the inside, bent
carefully to fit the curve of the ribs, and fastened by a brass
pin through each rib, the posterior end of the brass strip being
attached to a transverse process of one of the lumbar vertebr*
(see Plate XXI.). After this has been done, each rib can then
be permanently fastened at top and bottom by making the
loop and cutting off the long end of each wire.
The next step is to put on the tail. A hole should have been
bored into the middle of the articular surface of the posterior
end of the sacrum, and on each side a little hole coming out be-
low (see Fig. 73). The large middle wire (e, e) should be of
FIG. 75.— Middle Joint of the
Hind Leg.
MOUNTING A LARGE DISARTICULATED SKELETON. 301
FIG. 76,— Middle
of Hind Leg '.
View.
Joint
Rear
stiff brass, and extend through the entire length of the tail, the
tapering end being tiled small so that the small vertebrae can
fit over it. The small side wires of soft ' brass
(/, /) should only extend through a few of
the larger tail vertebra1, and are for making-
things firm.
To articulate the bones of the hind leg, first
arrange them so as to know the precise place
of each. Take first the tarsal and metatarsal
bones. In articulating these it is necessary
for one to use his judgment largely, and put
wires through so as to
make the joint firm.
Bore holes through the
astragalus and os cal-
cis (Fig. 75, a, a) so as
to put a double wire through these and
hold them together firmly. Next send
two strong double wires through these
and through the other
tarsal bones, and bring
them out on the pos-
terior surface of the
metatarsal or canon
bone (c and d).
Next articulate the bones of the feet. This
is very simply done by passing a single heavy
wire through the lower end of each half of the
canon bone to each set of phalanges, making
a loop at each end of the' wire (see Figs. 77
and -78). In large skeletons it will frequently
be found necessary to further strengthen the
articulations of the phalanges by means of
brass pins, as shown in the figure at a. The
sesamoids are fastened 011 by two stiff brass
pins through each at />.
The femur and tibia can be fastened to-
gether by a double brass wire passing through each condyle
of the femur, and through each side of the head of the tibia, or,
FIB. 77.— Bones of the Foot :
Side View.
Fio. 78.— Bones of the
Foot : Rear View.
302
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
FIG. 79.— The Face-Joint.
what is better, a, strip of brass set into the middle of the joint.
and fastened firmly by two stout brass pins driven transversely
through from side to side, as indicated in
Fig-. 79.
The patella is fastened on by passing a
wire through it and twisting it, or erecting
it on a small strip of brass set into the tu-
bercle of the tibia. The joint is further
strengthened by putting a brass pin through
the patella into the end of the femur.
The tibia is articulated to the lower por-
tion of the leg, or, more properly, the pes,
by putting stiff wire pins
into it. The femur is ar-
ticulated to the pelvis by
a brass bolt. The front foot is articulated on
the same principles as the hind foot.
In articulating the knee-joint, as it is called,
send two heavy wires through, letting them
come out on the posterior surface of the radius
and metacarpal bone, and insert two wire pins
diagonally through the joint, as shown in Fig.
81. The scapula is fastened to the humerus
by brass pins. The hume-
rus. radius, and ulna are
also fastened by brass pins, three in number.
The scapula is attached to the body by
two brass bolts attached to the ribs. Sec-
tions of spiral spring wire or pieces of brass
tube are placed* on the bolts between the
scapula and the ribs, to hold the former off
the latter the same distance as when the
flesh surrounding the scapula was all pres-
ent. As to the position of the legs, the
operator must use his own judgment. It
is of course to be understood that the attitude of the legs has
been decided upon before their articulation began, and that
the work of wiring together has been carried out in accordance
with this plan. It is hard to do more with a large skeleton
FIG. 80.— Front View of
Knee-Joint.
FIG.
81. — Elbow Joint :
Front View.
MOUNTING A LARGE DISARTICULATED SKELETON. 303
than to place the legs in an easy walking attitude, of which
the buffalo skeleton already figured may fairly be taken as a
model.
The rod extending through the spinal canal is cut off so that
the head will hang on it properly. Two brass pins are passed
through the atlas, one into each occipital condyle. Two iron
rods, with lacquered brass shoulders, are used to support the
skeleton, as shown in the figure. These rods should be paint-
ed black.
The lower jaw is fastened to the skull by means of brass spi-
ral spring wire, which permits it to be moved freely up and
down by any one who is studying the animal's dentition.
The method of mounting any large disarticulated skeleton of
a quadruped is essentially the same as that described for the
buffalo, the principle variation occurring in the fest. In articu-
lating the feet of a wolf, for example, the method of wiring the
tarsal bones, carpal bones, metatarsals, metacarpals, and the
phalanges, is very similar to that described for the buffalo, but
the workman must here also depend largely on his own ingenuity.
A single wire passes through the phalanges of each digit, and
two sesamoids are fastened on by a single wire.
Where the digits are more than two in number, a wire is
passed transversely through the lower ends of the metacarpals
and metatavsnls, and on this are placed short pieces of fine
coiled brass spring, to hold the digits at proper distances from
one another.
The tools used in mounting large skeletons are by no means
so numerous or costly that any one need be deterred from trying
his hand at practical, osteology on the score of facilities or the
lack of them. Of course the complete outfit of a professional
osteologist includes an extensive array of tools, some of which
are rather costly. The most important item is a good drilling
machine, chuck and lathe, to work by foot-power. This can be
procured of Goodnow & AVightman, of Boston, and in ordering
it will be necessary to have a |-inch hole drilled through the
centre of the axle, to receive the long, steel drills of various
sizes that are to drill the many holes required in the various
bones.
The amateur who can not afford an expensive plant and a
804 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
first-class drilling- machine, can get along- very well with a Mil-
lers' Falls hand-drill and a good assortment of first-class steel
drills to fit it. I once saw an old German anatomist mount a
cow skeleton for a Western college with hardly more tools than
I could hold in one hand — but, of course, that skeleton was not
mounted a, la Lucas, by a considerable difference.
PART V.— THE COLLECTION AND PRESERVA-
TION OF INSECTS.
BY W. J. HOLLAND, PH.D.
CHAPTER XL.
THE CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.
IT is estimated that four-fifths of the species comprised within
the animal kingdom belong to the class of the Insecta. Fully
one hundred and seventy-five thousand species of insects have
already been named and described. Nevertheless vast terri-
tories teeming1 with insect life have been as yet only very iin-
perfectly explored. The life-history and habits of only a few
thousands of species have as yet been accurately investigated.
There remains, therefore, a broad field for discovery and re-
search in this portion of the animal creation.
Many insects are potygoneutic, that is, the species is repre-
sented by two or more annual broods, or generations, and thou-
sands of individuals may, by careful treatment, be reared from
the eggs of a single female. In the case of the higher animals
the development and multiplication of individuals takes place
but slowly, and it is obvious, therefore, that there is in the do-
main of insect life a far more convenient field for the investi-
gation of the great problems of variation in animal forms, than
among the vertebrate animals. Aberrant forms are not uncom-
mon, especially among butterflies and moths, and arc worthy of
careful study. The various broods often present great and
striking differences. The phenomena of seasonal and sexual
20
306 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
dimorphism are nowhere more clearly developed than among
the lepidoptera. Hybridization also often takes place between
allied species of insects, especially in the case of the bombycid
moths, and it is possible for the skilful entomologist to conduct
investigations in this interesting department of inquiry with
almost as much freedom and success as have attended the
labors of the botanist in the domain of plant life.
The economic importance of the study of entomology can
scarcely be overestimated. Some of the best friends of the ag-
riculturist, as well as multitudes of his worst enemies, are
found among the insects. The silkworm, the cochineal insect,
and the bee have aided in the accumulation of many fortunes,
and their culture has provided employment for millions of
human beings. On the other hand, property worth millions of
dollars is annually destroyed by insect ravages. It has been
asserted b}r competent authorities that the depredations of the
Codling moth (Carpocapsa Pomonella) have resulted, in a single
year, within the limits of the State of Pennsylvania alone, in the
destruction of fruit worth over a million of dollars, and the ter-
rible Phylloxera at one time threatened the total overthrow of
viticulture in Southern Europe.
Various schemes have been proposed for the classification of
insects, and there is -as yet only partial agreement among stu-
dents upon this subject.
Insects belong to that great group of animals designated by
zoologists as the AKTHKOPODA. As a means of assisting to a
better understanding of the practical hints and suggestions
which follow, a sketch of the classification of the Arthropoda is
here given.
ARTHROPODA.
Animals possessing an external skeleton composed of chitinous rings, or somites, and
provided with articulated limbs.
Ceratophora.
Class I. PERIPATIDEA (Genus Peripatus).
Class II. MYRIAPODA.
Orders :
1. Diplopoda (Galley-worms, etc.).
2. Pauropida (Genus Pauropus, etc.).
3. Chilopoda (Centipedes, etc.).
THE CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.
307
Class III. HEXAPODA
Heterometabola. For
the most part undergoing
only a partial metamor-
phosis in the develop-
ment from the egg to the
imago.
Metabola. Undergo-
ing for the most part a
complete metamorphosis
from egg through larva
and pupa to imago.
(Insects proper).
Orders :
1. Thysanura.
Sub-orders :
Coliembola (Podura, Spring- tails).
Sym phyla (Scolopendrella).
Cinura (Bristle-tails, etc.).
2. Dermatoptera (Ear-wigs).
3 Pseudoneuroptera.
Sub-orders :
Mallophaga (Bird-lice).
Platypteia (Stone-flies. Termites, etc.).
Odonata (Dragon-flies, etc.).
Ephemerina (May-flies, etc.).
4. Neuroptera (Corydalis, Ant-lion, Caddis-flies, etc.).
f>. Orthoptera (Cockroach, Mantis, Mole-cricket, Grass-
hopper, Katydid, etc.).
6. Hemiptera.
Sub -orders :
Parasita (Lice).
Sternorhyncha (Aphids, Mealy-bugs, etc.).
Homoptera (Cicada, Tree-hoppers, etc.).
Heteroptera (Ranatra, Belostoma, Water-spiders,
Squash-bugs Bed-bugs, etc.).
7. Coleoptera.
Sub-orders :
Cryptotetramera (Lady-birds, etc.).
Cryptopentamera (Leaf-beetles, Long-horns, Wee-
vils, etc.).
Heteromera (Blister-beetles, Meal-brigs, etc.).
Pentamera (Fire-flios, Skip-jacks, June-bugs,
Dung-beetles, Stag-beetles, Rove-beetles, Wa-
ter-beetles, Tiger-beetles, etc.).
8. Aphaniptera (Fleas).
9. Diptera.
Sub-orders :
Orthorhapha (Hessian-fly, Buffalo Gnats, Mosqui-
toes, Crane-flies, Horse-flies).
Cyclorhapha (Syrphis, Bot-flies, Tsetze, House-
fly, etc.).
10. Lepidoptera.
Sub-orders :
Rhopalocera (Butterflies).
Heterocera (Moths).
11. Hymenoptera.
Sub-orders :
Terebrantia (Saw-flies, Gall-wasps, Iclmeumon-
flies, etc.).
Aculeata (Ants, Cuckoo-flies, Digger-wasps, True
Wasps, Bees).
308 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
Acerata.
Class 1. CRUSTACEA (Barnacles, Crabs, etc.).
Class II. AKACIINIDA.
Orders :
1. Acarina (Mites).
2. Araneina (Spiders).
o. Pedipalpi (Whip-scorpions, etc.).
4. Solpugae (Whip-scorpions).
5. Pseudoscorpii (False Scorpions).
0. Scorpiodea (True Scorpions).
Class III. PANTOPODA ( Pycnogonida, Sea-spiders).
Class IV. TARDIGKADA (Macrobiotus, etc.).
Class V. GIGANTOSTRACA (Horse-shoe Crabs, Tiilobites, etc.).
Class VI. LINGUATULINA (Pentastoma, etc.).
CHAPTEK XLI.
EGGS AND LABVJE : BREEDING AND REARING.
THE EGG.— The Artliropoda are developed from eggs. The
eggs of these animals are often exceedingly curious in form and
remarkable in color. The eg-g-s of insects are generally de-
posited upon those substances upon which the animal feeds
during- its larval or rudimentary stage of existence. They arc
most frequently found attached to the leaves and twigs of
plants and trees. Some insects are carnivorous as larva?, and
deposit their eggs upon dead animal matter, or even, as th"
ichneumon-flies and other parasitic forms, upon the tissues of
living- animals. Some lay their eggs upon decaying wood, or
upon the ordure of animals. Some deposit their eggs in water.
The female of some of the myriapoda deposits her eggs in a
mass under the bark of decaying trees, and, coiling up about
them, apparently guards them with maternal instinct until they
are hatched. The spawn of many of the Crustacea is earned
about by the female, attached in masses to the lower surface of
the body. The eggs of some insects, as the cockroach and the
mantis, are deposited in masses concealed within eases, and so
united as to appear to form composite or multiple eggs.
These are conspicuous objects. A similar arrangement is
found in the case of the ova of Hydrophilus and allied aquatic
Coleoptera. The eggs of the mosquito are deposited upon the
surface of the water in small, boat-shaped masses, composed of
from fifty to one hundred ova. The eggs of the Lepidoptera,
which are generally deposited upon the leaves and blossoms ,,t'
trees and plants, are not difficult to find, and have been more
carefully observed and described than those of other orders.
By confining impregnated females of many species of butter-
flies and moths in nets of gauze drawn over the branches of the
310 TAXIDEIIMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
food-plant, it is often possible to obtain their eggs in consider-
able numbers. The insects thus confined should be supplied
with food and drink. This may be done by sprinkling- upon
the leaves water sweetened with sugar, or preferably honey.
The females of many of the bombycid moths and hawk-moths
will lay freely, if enclosed in a dark box, without the presence of
the food-plant. When eggs are found and their parentage is
unknown, a few should be preserved as hereafter described, and
the remainder should be retained and kept until they have
been hatched and the perfect insect lias been reared therefrom.
Insect eggs may often be obtained by dissecting- the gravid fe-
male, but it is always preferable to obtain them, if possible,
after oviposition has taken place, since in many cases the color
of the egg- in the oviduct is somewhat different from what it is
after having- bseii laid.
The eg-gs of insects may be deprived of their vitality by im-
mersion in alcohol or by exposure to heat. The albumen of
ova coagulates at 160° F., and the temperature of the egg-
should not be raised above 175°. They are best killed by being-
placed in the stove used for drying- the skins of larvae, which is
described on page 315. It is better to kill by means of a gentle
heat than by immersion in alcohol, as by the latter process a
change in color is sometimes produced. After they have been
deprived of their vitality they may be preserved in small
phials in dilute giycerine, or, if this cannot be had, in a solu-
tion of common salt. The phials should be kept tightly
corked, and should be numbered by a label, wrritten in lead pen-
cil and placed within the bottle, to correspond, with the note
made in the collector's note-book giving an account of the place
of discovery, the food-plant, the date when found, and the name
of the insect which deposited them, if known. In the latter
case it is best to put the name of the insect in the phial with
the number. Unless insect eggs are preserved in a fluid they
are apt in many cases to shrivel with the lapse of time and be-
come distorted, through the drying up of their contents, which,
on account of their small size, it is impossible to void. The
shell of some eggs is often very neatly voided by the escape of
the larva, but there is generally a large orifice left, the color is
frequently materially altered, and great vigilance in securing
EGGS AND LARVAE: BREEDING AND RKAIUXG. 311
the shell must be exercised, as the young1 larvae of many species
have the curious habit of whetting- their appetites for future
meals by turning- about, as soon as they have been hatched, and
eating the shell which they have just left.
The eggs of insects are best mounted in the form of micro-
scopic slides in glycerine jelly contained in cells of appropri-
ate depth and diameter. It is well to mount several upon the
same slide, exhibiting the lateral as well as the terminal aspect
of the eg-gs. At the upper end of all insect eggs there are one
or more curious structures, known as micropyles (little doors),
through which the spermatozoa of the male find ingress and
they are fertilized. The peculiar, and often very beautiful,
features of this part of the egg are, in a wTell-mounted specimen,
exposed to viewr. In some cases it is advisable to slice off the
end of the eg-g with the micropyle and mount it microscopi-
cally. The best display of this curious structure is thus often
obtained.
The slides should be kept in a cabinet arranged in shallow
trays. They should be accurately named, and have references
to a book into wrhich, from time to time, should be carefully
transcribed from the field-book the observations of the collector,
or his assistants and correspondents. Such a collection of in-
sect ova is not only valuable but intensely interesting.
THE LARVA.— By reference to the table of the classification of
the Arthropoda, given in Chapter XL., it will be observed that
the Insecta are broadly divisible into two groups, the Heterome-
tabola and the Metabola. The animals classified in the first
group do not underg-o metamorphosis in the development from
the egg to the perfect insect to the same extent and in the
same manner as the Metabola. In this respect the Peripatid< ;i,
the Myriapoda, and the various classes included under the
Acerata agree with them. The young mvriapod and the young-
spider are found immediately after they have emerged from the
egg- to present most of the features of the mature insect, and so
also the immature grasshopper and squash-bug resemble the
perfect insect in nearly everything but size and the absence of
fully developed wings. In preparing a suite of specimens of
these insects, designed to illustrate their life-history, the direc-
tions which are given for the preparation of the imago appl\
312 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
equally well to the larva. It is simply necessary, for instance,
in preparing1 a series of specimens of the Rocky Mountain Lo-
cust, to make sure that a specimen representing1 the creature
after each successive moult has been secured, and these are
mounted upon pins, and treated exactly as specimens of the
adult insect are treated. Be careful not to pin, however, too
soon after the moult.
In the case of many of the Coleoptera, and of all the Metabola
the work of the collector is rendered far more laborious, for
these pass from the egg into vermiform larvae, which undergo
in some cases many moults, are then transformed into pup*,
which are either naked or contained in a protecting envelope
known as the cocoon, and then finally, after a longer or shorter
period in the pupal state, are transformed into the perfect
insect.
The student and collector, if intending to benefit science by
their efforts, dare not neglect these rudimentary forms.
The larvse of most insects which undergo a complete meta-
morphosis are very small when first emerging from the egg, and
before they make the first moult are, for the most part, best pre-
served as microscopic objects in cells filled with glycerine. In
the case of the larvao of the great bombycid moths, which at the
time of hatching are dark in color, it is possible to make a fairly
good specimen by piercing the anal extremity of the caterpillar,
and spitting it upon the extremity of a thick, black bristle,
or a fine copper wire wrapped with black silk. Specimens so
mounted will not shrivel greatly, and may be attached to pins
and placed in the cabinet after the slide containing the egg, as
the first, in the series of slowly maturing forms. After each
successive moult the larvae increase rapidly in size. The
method of preparing the larger forms which is now preferred
by good collectors is that of inflation.
In inflating larvae the first step is to carefully remove the
contents of the larval skin. This is best effected by making an
incision with a stout pin or needle at the anus, and then, between
the folds of a soft towel, gently pressing out the contents of the
abdominal cavity. The pressure should be first applied near
the point where the pellicle has been punctured, and then be
carried forward until the region of the head is reached. Great
EGGS AND LARVJ2 : BREEDING AND REARING. 313
care must be exercised not to apply such a degree of pressure as
will expel those tissues lying nearest to the epidermis, in which
the pigments are located, and in the case of hairy larvae not to
rob them of their hair. Practice can alone make perfect in this
regard. The contents of the larva having been removed, the
next step is to inflate and dry the empty skin. Some persons,
as preliminary to this step, recommend that the empty skin be
soaked for a period of a few hours in pure alcohol. By this
process undoubtedly a certain portion of the watery matter con-
tained in the pellicle is removed, and the process of desiccation
is facilitated, biit it is objectionable in the case of all larvae
having light colors, because these are more or less effaced by
the action of the alcohol.
The simplest method of inflating the skins of larvas after the
contents have been withdrawn is to insert a straw or grass stem
of appropriate thickness into the opening through which the
contents have been removed, and then by the breath to inflate,
while holding over the chimney of an Argand lamp, the flame
of which must be regulated so as not to scorch or singe the
specimen. Care must be taken in the act of inflating not to
unduly extend the larval skin, thus producing a distortion, and
also to dry it thoroughly. Unless the latter precaution is ob-
served a subsequent shrinking and disfigurement will take
place. The process of inflating in the manner just described is
somewhat laborious, and while some of the finest specimens-
which the writer has ever seen, were prepared in this primitive
manner, various expedients for lessening the labor involved
have been devised, some of which are to be highly commended.
A comparatively inexpensive arrangement for inflating larva-
is a modification of that described in the " Entomologische
Nachrichten," 1879, vol. v., p. 7, devised by Mr. Fritz A. AVachtel.
It consists of a foot-bellows such as is ns»d by chemists in the
laboratory, or, better still, of a small cylinder such as is used for
holding gas in operating the oxy -hydrogen lamp of a sciopticon.
In the latter case the compressed air should not have a pressure
exceeding fifty pounds to the square inch, and the cock regulat-
ing the flow from the cylinder should be capable of very tine
adjustment. By means of a rubber tube the air is conveyed
from the cylinder to a couple of flasks, one of which contains
814
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
concentrated sulphuric acid and the other is intended for the
reception of any overflow of the hydrated sulphuric acid which
may occur. The object of passing the air through sulphuric
acid is to rob it, so far as possible, of its moisture. It is then
conveyed into a flask, which is heated upon a sand-bath, and
thence by a piece of flexible tubing to a tip mounted on a joint
FIG. 82.— Apparatus for Inflating Larvae. B, Foot-bellows ; K, rubber tube ; C, flask ; D, an-
hydrous sulphuric acid ; E, overflow flask ; F, rubber tube from flask ; G, standard with cock to
regulate flow of air ; H, glass tube with larva upon it ; I, copper drying-plate ; J, spirit-lamp.
allowing vertical and horizontal motion and secured by a stand-
ard to the working-table. The flow of air through the tip is
regulated by a cock. Upon the tip is fastened a small rubber
tube, into the free extremity of which is inserted a fine-pointed
glass tube. This is provided with an armature consisting of
two steel springs fastened upon opposite sides, and their ends
bent at right angles in such a way as to hold the larval skin
firmly to the extremity of the tube. The skin having been ad-
justed upon the fine point of the tube, the bellows is put into
EGGS AND LARV/E : BREEDING AND REARING.
315
FIG. 83.— Drying Oven. A,
Lamp ; B, pin to hold door
open ; C, door open ; D, glass
cover.
operation and the skin is inflated. A drying- apparatus is pro-
vided in several ways. A copper plate mounted upon four leg's,
and heated by an alcohol lamp placed below, has been advocated
by some. A better arrangement, used by
the writer, consists of a small oven heated
by the flame of an alcohol lamp, or by
jets of natural gas, and provided with
circular openings of various sizes, into
which the larval skin is introduced. (See
Fig. 83.) A modification of the oven is
given in Fig. 84.
A less commendable method of pre-
serving larvae is to place them in alcohol.
The larvae should be tied up in sacks of
light gauze netting-, and a label of tough
paper with the date and locality of capture, and the name, if
known, written with a lead pencil, should be attached to each
such little sack. Do not
use ink on labels to be im-
mersed, but a hard lead
pencil. Alcoholic speci-
mens are liable to become
shrivelled and discolored,
and are not nearly as valu-
able as well - inflated and
dried skins.
AVhen the skins have
been inflated they may be
mounted readily by being-
placed upon wires wrapped
with given silk, or upon an-
nealed aluminium AVIIV.
The wires are bent and
twisted together for a short
distance and then made to
diverge as in Fig. 85. Tin-
diverging- ends are pressed together, a little shellac is placed
upon their tips, and they are then inserted into the opening at
the anal extremity of the larval skin. Upon the release of
FIG. 84.— Oven for Drying Larva-skin, made of tin
joined without solder and with top made of glass.
(After Riley.)
316 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
pressure they spread apart, and after the shellac has dried the
skin is firmly held by them. They may then be attached to
pins by simply twisting the free
end of the wire about the pin,
or they. may be placed upon ar-
FIG. 85.- Wire Bent into Shape for Mounting tificial imitations of the leaves
Larva. (After Riley.) . .
and twigs ot their appropriate
food-plants. This method of preparation is applicable to the
larva? of Coleoptera and Diptera as well as to those of the Lepi-
doptera.
An account of the manner of preserving- larvae would not be
complete without an account of the manner of rearing them.
In rearing the larvae of Coleoptera, Diptera, and Hymeiioptera.
the student must be left in a large degree to his own devices.
A few large glass jars capable of being closed with a gauze top
are necessary, though in the case of the Hymenoptera reliance
must be mainly placed upon finding the larvae in their nests.
Bees and wasps construct various larval edifices, and these must
be explored as found in nature for a knowledge of the immature
insect. Breeding them in captivity is attended by difficulties
which are rarely overcome by the most expert, except in a few
isolated cases. This is also true, but to a less extent of the lar-
vae of the Coleoptera. The larvae of many beetles which are ear
nivorous may be reared in glass jars, 'or boxes, covered with fine
wire gauze, at the bottom of which earth or sand has been placed,
and in which a supply of appropriate food can be put, such . as
the soft larvae of beetles, maggots, and bits of meat. It is best
to previously scald the earth and sand placed at the bottom of
the breeding cages in order to destroy the eggs and small larvae
of other species which might be introduced. The cages should
have a sufficient supply of moisture, and, so far as possible, tin-
circumstances should be made to approximate those under which
the larvae were found. The larvae of wood-boring beetles may be
bred in portions of the wood which they frequent. A tight
barrel with a cover made of wire gauze fitting closely over the
top is a good device. In the fall of the year it may be filled
with fallen twigs and pieces of branches from the forest, on
which beetles have oviposited, and in the spring there will IK*
generally found a large number of beautiful specimens of species.
EGGS AND LARV.E : BREEDING AXD I1KA11IXG.
311
some of which are otherwise very difficult to secure. The bar-
rels should be placed in a covered spot in the open air, and the
twigs and wood occasionally lightly moistened with water. The
larvae of leaf-eating beetles
may be bred as the larvae
of lepidoptera. The larva1
of neuropterous insects,
such as Myrmeleon, may
be easily reared in boxes
at the bottom of which
sand to the depth of six
inches has been placed.
They may be fed with
house-flies which have
been deprived of their
wings, and soft bodies of
coleopterous larvae, and the
larvae of ants. The larvae
of the Odouata and aquatic
beetles must be reared in
aquaria in which there is
a muddy bottom pro-
vided, and in which there
are a few pieces of rot-
ting wood, with loose
bark upon it, so that they
protrude some inches
above the surface of the
water, and in which
aquatic plants are kept
growing. Many aquatic insects pupate under the bark of trees
growing at the edge of the water.
The breeding of the larvae of lepidopterous insects has re-
ceived far greater attention than that of other insects, and many
modifications of devices for this purpose have been suggested.
The simplest devices are often the bes!:, arid in the early stages
of the smaller forms the best plan is to pot a specimen of the
appropriate food-plant, when it is low and herbaceous and
capable of being thus treated, and then put it under a cover of
FIG. 86.— Breeding Cage. (After Kiev.) a, Bottom
board ; g <j, battens to prevent warping ; //, zinc pan
four inches deep; d, zinc tube pokkrecl to bottom of
pan and intended to hold jar of water for fooil-p'ant- :
f, earth in pan ; />, box with glass sides and hin<red
door ; c, removable cap of box covered with wire gauze.
318
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
tarletan or under a bell glass. When the larva undergoes its
transformations in the ground a bed of earth several inches in
depthjiipon which some dead leaves and* litter are placed, should
be provided. A convenient form of a breeding-cage is repre-
sented in Fig. 86. Mr. W. H. Edwards, who has done more than
any other person to elucidate the life-history of North American
butterflies, often uses a breeding-cage made of a nail keg, the top
of which has been knocked out, and over which gauze netting is
tied. The writer has successfully employed, for breeding moths
upon a large scale, common store-
boxes, with about eight inches in
depth of good soil at the bottom,
covered with a close-fitting frame
lid over which mosquito-netting
is tacked. Branches of the food-
plant are set into the box in jars
of water, in which they remain
fresh for several days (see Fig. 87).
If possible, and if operations are
to be prosecuted upon a large
scale, it is well to appropriate to
breeding purposes a small room
from which all the furniture and
The windows should be closed
them, and the doors should
FIG. 87.— Breeding Cage. B. Jar with food-
plant ; E, box with soil ; G, gauze lid.
carpets have been removed,
with gauze netting tacked over
also be made tight so as to prevent the escape of the insects.
When the caterpillars descend from the food-plants which are
placed in the apartment in jars of water, or in pots, and thus
indicate their readiness to undergo transformation, they should
be secured and placed in smaller boxes fitted up as before de-
scribed, and, in case the insect pupates in the soil, provided
with a sufficient depth of earth. In case it is desired to go to
still greater expense, a small house, arranged after the manner
of a greenhouse, and with suitable cages and compartments, may
be provided. Such an insect-house exists at Cornell University,
and is under the care of that admirable investigator, Professor
Comstock, who no doubt would be glad to furnish students with
a knowledge of the details of its construction. The larv?e of
many lepidopterous insects emerge from the egg in the fall
EGGS AND LARV.E : BREEDING AND REARING. 319
of the year, and after feeding- for a time and undergoing one or
two moults, hibernate, and upon the return of the springtime
begin feeding1 again, and finally pupate. It is best in the CMM-
of such to leave the larvae in the fall in a cold place, as an ice-
house, and to suffer them to remain there until an abundant
supply of the proper food-plant can be obtained.
In the breeding of lame experience must be the great in-
structor, and practice can alone make perfect. No department
of entomological study is, however, quite so fascinating as this,
even though its prosecution may be somewhat laborious.
CHAPTER XLH.
COLLECTING IMAGOES.
THE name imago is applied by naturalists to the perfect form
of insects, which is revealed at the conclusion of the round of
metamorphoses. In the collection and the preservation of
these the most necessary implement at the outset is the net. A
simple way of making- a serviceable and strong- net is to take a
piece of brass or galvanized iron wire about three feet and six
inches in length, and about three-sixteenths
of an inch in diameter, and having- bent it
into the form of a hoop, with the two ends
forming- shanks, to insert these into the end
of a brass ferule such as is used on fishing--
rods, and fix them there by pouring in melted
lead or solder in such a way that the handle
can be inserted into the other end of the
ferule. This can be easily accomplished by
plugging the handle end of the ferule with
a piece of soft wood or with clay. The han-
dle should be light, and not more than four
or five feet in length for ordinary use. To the
ring of the net a sack made of green tarletan,
or less preferably mosquito-netting, about two and a half times
as deep as the diameter of the ring, should be sewn. A piece
of green muslin should be then stitched on as a binding over
the ring. Green is to be always preferred to any other color
as less likely to alarm the insects. Nets with folding rings and
jointed bamboo handles are to be had of most dealers, and are
to be highly recommended for convenience, if well made. In
collecting about electric lights which hang high, and along the
woodland walks of tropical forests, it is well to be able to add
*
FIG. 88.— Net Frame.
(After Riley.) a, Wire
ring with ends bent to in-
sert in ferule 6 ; c, point
where plug and net-han-
dle meet.
w
H
y
COLLECTING IMAGOES.
321
to the length of the handle by inserting1 more
joints of bamboo. Some butterflies are " high-
fliers." Nets made of stout muslin are useful
for sweeping the tops of grass and low herb-
age, and in this way multitudes of small in-
sects of various orders may be taken. Such
nets should be larger than the ordinary net.
Nets made of stout lace cloth are used for
capturing aquatic insects in pools and ditches.
For this purpose a scoop made of wire gauze
may also be advantageously employed.
In the capture of insects the umbrella plays, ter Riiey.) The frame is
in the hands of a skilful collector, a very im- £f ^^tt
portant part. It is used as a receptacle for side of the hat when not
insects which are beaten from the overhang- in ™*> and the handle
. . used as a cane.
ing branches, under which it is held in an
inverted position while the operation of beating is going on.
As the insects fall they must be caught and placed in the
collecting-jars. (See
Plate XXII, Fig. 1.)
Collecting- jars are
of various sizes. For
Lepidoptera the one-
pound jars used by
Schering for hydrate
of chloral, which have
nicely ground glass
stoppers, are admira-
ble. In preparing
the jars the following
directions should be
closely attended to :
Place at the bottom
of the jar some lumps
of cyanide of potash,
over these place a few
pieces of paper loose-
ly crumpled and
rammed down so asj
f
FIG. 99.— Folding Net. (After Riley.) a, Net-ring open ;
ft, enlarged view of joint and check ; c, ring folded aud de-
tached from ferule ; d, nut su;ik into end of ferule ; <•, MTC\V
to hold Tlr.g in place ; /, illustrating manner of putting ring
and rod together.
21
'322
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
FIG. 91. — Collecting
Jar. Cy., Cyanide of
potash wedged into
place with soft paper;
P, perforated paper disc.
to hold the lumps of the cyanide in position. Pour in two or
three drops of water. Take a piece of stout and clean writing-
paper and describe upon it a circle of the
same size as the inside of the bottle, and
around this another circle three-quarters of
an inch greater in diameter. Cut out a circu-
lar disc of paper, following with the scissors
the line of the outer circle. At intervals of a
quarter of an inch cut slits all around the disc
of paper extending them inwardly only as far
as the first circle drawn upon the paper. Fold
back the outer edge of the disc upon the side
of the paper which is to come uppermost in
the bottle. With a pin, or a small punch,
pierce a number of holes through the middle
of the paper. Apply some gum to the edge
of the disc which has been folded back, and
fix it securely on the top of the mass of cyanide and paper at
the bottom of the jar, by pressing the gummed edge against
the sides of the bottle. This method is infinitely preferable to
the old way of fixing the cyanide in the bottom of the jar by
pouring in a cement of plaster of Paris. In-
stead of lumps of cyanide of potash, lumps
of carbonate of ammonia may be used to
charge the poisoning- jar, but a jar so charged
must never be used to kill insects which are
green in color, as the fumes of the ammonia
often serve to bleach these and make them
white or brown.
In the case of large insects, or insects
which struggle violently, a few drops of
chloroform may be poured into the collect-
ing-jar, to prevent them from injuring themselves. Chloro-
form is not, however, to be commended as a killing agent, inas-
much as it induces thoracic spasms, which make the specimen
difficult to set after death. In the case of the larger moths and
beetles death may be instantaneously induced by injecting u
solution of cyanide of potash with a hypodermic syringe. Th(
use of oxalic acid in solution, administered by making an inci-
FIG. 92. — Perforated
Disc of Paper for Holding
Cj-anide ill Place at Bot-
tom of Jar.
COLLECTING IMAGOES.
sion into the thorax of the insect with the point of a crow-quill
pen dipped into the solution, is not to be highly commended,
as the acid changes the color of the specimen, and, after it has
been pinned, corrodes the pin. Likewise when specimens have
been kept too long1 in a jar charged, with ammonia, and are
pinned immediately after they have been taken out, the pins
are liable to be corroded and eaten through.
The collector having provided himself with nets and killing-
jars, will not be thoroughly equipped for field work until he
have added to his outfit the necessary conveniences for carrying
his captures with him uninjured. The writer, after long experi-
ence as a collector in many lands, is inclined to think that the
best appliance is a tin box lined with cork, and provided with a
compartment in which a cyanide cake* may be placed before
going to the field, and in which, after the return, when the cya-
nide cake has been withdrawn, a sponge may be put, which
should be saturated with a weak solution of carbolic acid for
the double purpose of keeping the specimens from drying out
too rapidly and from moulding. The box should not be more
than 10 x 8 x 3i inches inside measurement, and should lie
divided into two equal parts, hinged at the side which is car-
ried uppermost, and hung over the shoulder by a strap. A
pincushion filled with pins may be attached to the belt. A
belt arranged like a cartridge-belt, with pockets to carry pill-
boxes about one and one-half inch square and three-quarters
of an inch deep should also be provided. These boxes should
have glass bottoms. They are to be used in "boxing" the
smaller lepidoptera and other delicate insects which, if killed
and pinned on the field, would be too dry upon return from
the chase to make good cabinet specimens. Boxed specimens
may be kept for a day or two, and killed and mounted at leis
ure. A bag containing1 several small boxes may also be c;ir
ried. These boxes should have in them a supply of paper en-
velopes, for papering specimens in the way hereafter to be
described. A loose sack-coat, with an abundance of capacious
pockets inside and out, is indispensable. A small poisoninir
jar for beetles should be carried in the right hand pocket of the
* The cyanide cake is made by pouring plaster of Paris into a mould of proper size
and imbedding in it before setting a number of lumps of cyanide of putash.
324 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
pantaloons, a similar jar in the left-hand pocket for hyrnen-
optera and diptera. In the right-hand pocket of the sack-coat
should be carried the large jar for killing- lepidoptera, and in
the left-hand pocket a smaller jar for neuroptera and orthop-
tera. Thus arrayed the collector is completely furnished for
the chase. It will, however, be well for him, if he can, to secure
the attendance of an assistant to carry some of his " traps " and
assist him. We will now go out with him into the field and
give him a few practical instructions as to the best mode of
procedure.
First of all, it is proper to observe that it is advisable not to
be in a hurry and not to rush over the ground. The represen-
tations in comic newspapers of the entomologist, wildly tearing
about the fields and in mad haste chasing a butterfly over hills
and meadows, are not drawn from a study of the methods of ex-
perts. " All things come to him who waits." Slyness, cool-
ness, a keen eye, and adroit quickness in the use of the net are
the qualities which yield the largest returns to the collector.
In the use of the net the habits of insects must be noted.
Those which alight upon the ground or low herbage may be
caught by clapping the net over them. Most butterflies and
moths have the habit, when caught, of flying upward in the net.
Therefore so soon as the insect, if a lepidopteron, is enclosed in
the net, hold up the closed end of the sack, and, introducing
the poison jar, from which the stopper has been removed, take
the insect. A little practice will soon enable the collector to
do this without allowing the fly to beat and in jure its wings, and
without touching them in the least with the fingers. (Plate
XXIII., Fig. 1.) A convenient way of securing small insects in
the net is by a rapid motion hither and thither, with the mouth
open to the wind, to drive them back into the bottom of the
sack, and then to place this in the bottle and leave it there a few
seconds until the insects are stunned, when they may be shaken
into the jar. When the insect alights within reach upon the
ends of branches or the tops of flowering plants, it may bo
swept into the net by a dexterous movement and thus secured.
A similar stroke will often, when well aimed, secure specimens
riving past the station of the collector. (Plate XXIII., Fig. 2.)
Beetles and insects of other orders than the lepidoptera may be
COLLECTING IMAGOES.
325
placed in the jars appropriated to them and left there until the
return from the fields. "With the Lepidoptera it is necessary to
exercise greater care. The smaller specimens, such as the Tor-
tricidfe and Phycitidae and Tiueidse should be '"boxed" in the
pill-boxes provided for this purpose. The Lycaenidse, Hes
peridae, and most of the moths, should be caught in the large
jar in the manner just described, and when stunned, pinned and
placed in the cork-lined box, where the process of completely
depriving them of life will be completed. The larger, and even
some of the smaller, butterflies may be killed while in the net
by gently pinching them through its folds, between the first
finger and the thumb
at the point where
the wings are attach-
ed to the thorax (see
Fig. 93). The press-
ure should be applied
when the wings are
folded back to back,
as the insect sits
when in repose. If
applied in any other
way the specimen is
likely to be seriously
damaged, and moths
should never be thus
killed. In pinning specimens in the tin box used for trans-
portation while upon the hunt, the storage power of the box
will be increased by pinning a number of specimens upon one
pin, thrusting the pin through the insect horizontally and not
perpendicularly through the upper surface of the thorax.
The labors of the collector should not be confined to the day.
Multitudes of the rarest and most desirable species are noc-
turnal in their habits. Some of them are readily attracted to
light, though, strangely enough, the individuals among the
lepidoptera thus attracted are mainly of the male sex. By
placing a lamp at an open window many moths may be secured.
Klectric lights are good points for the collector, if they are
within reach. The burnt and ragged refuse which the cleaner
FIG. 93.— Method of Pinching a Bm.terfly.
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
finds in the globes in the morning1, half -buried in the dust of
the disintegrated carbons, is of little or no value. Various
traps lighted with lanterns have been suggested, but so far
few of them have equalled the simple device of a friend of
mine, who, living1 in a tropical country, has set apart a small
room for this purpose, and having1 cleared it of all furniture,
and whitewashed the walls, keeps a powerful lamp burning in
it every night opposite a large window facing the forest. His
captures vary from a dozen to a hundred specimens of lepi-
doptera every night of the year, and multitudes of insects of
other orders. In the temperate zones a favorite method of col-
lecting lepidoptera is by " sugaring." For this a mixture of
sugar and stale beer, or molasses and water, flavored with rum,
and of about the consistency of thin maple syrup, should be
used. It is best applied to the trunks of trees upon the edge
of clearings, and on' moonlight nights on the side of the wood
toward the moon. Apply the mixture to from forty to eighty
trees, stumps, or stakes, with a whitewash brush, and then go
over the " beat " with a dark lantern and capture the moths in
the wide-mouthed cyanide jar. In this way the writer has
taken as many as three or four hundred moths in a single even-
ing. The same trees should be sugared and visited night after
night, and the best results are often only obtained after a beat
has been in operation for some time and the insects have
learned to know it. The best catch is generally to be had in
the two hours immediately following sunset. In tropical coun-
tries, aside from the Erebidse and allied moths, few species
appear to be attracted to sugar, and in warm climates plenty of
rum should be added to the mixture. To keep ants off from
trees which have been sugared, the writer finds it good to tie a
band of dark cloth which has been treated with a saturated so-
lution of corrosive sublimate about the trunk near the ground.
This only is to be done where a regular route has been selected
for nightly visitation, and it has the disadvantage of keeping
away from the baits many beetles which are attracted to sugar.
Trees which have been sugared and visited at night should be
revisited in the daytime, and many day-flying species will be
found feasting upon what has been left by the revellers who
attended the banquet of the night before.
a
H
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7
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23
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COLLECTING IMAGOES. 827
Some insects have quite revolting1 tastes, and may be cap-
tured by pandering to them. The ordure of wild animals has a
charm for many, and by placing* the dung of dogs, or civet-cats,
or any of the Felidie, in the woodland paths of tropical forests
many great rarities may be secured. Carrion and dead fish in
particular are attractive baits.
It has been recently claimed by a writer that painted decoys
representing1 butterflies, placed upon flowers, or kept in motion
at the tip of a switch, may be effectively used in securing1 rare
and wild species. The writer has no personal knowledge of the
merit of the plan. It might be- worth trying1, however, in tho
case of monstrous rarities.
CHAPTER XLIH.
PREPARATION, CAEE, AND DISPLAY OF INSECTS.
THE next step after the capture of the specimens is to pre-
pare them either for transportation or for the cabinet. If col-
lecting upon a journey, or where facilities for the preparation of
0 B specimens for the cabinet are lack-
ing1, the insects may be preserved in
papers. Common drug-gists' envel-
opes are a very convenient resource
for the preservation of lepidoptera.
They may be purchased by the thou-
sand at about sixty - five cents. If
these cannot be had, envelopes may
easily be made from pieces of paper,
preferably stiff newspaper or com-
mon writing-paper upon which ink
has not been used. The manner of
folding these is illustrated by Figures 94 and 95. Care should
be taken to write upon the envelope, before the insect is placed
in it, the date and the locality of capture. Beetles, if black and
devoid of hairy vestiture, may be pre-
served in alcohol, and the same course
may be taken with many insects of
other orders. It is preferable, how-
ever, to pack beetles and other hard-
bodied insects in layers of cotton bat-
ting. A small box may be made to
contain an immense number of insects in envelopes or in cot-
ton, and they may thus be safely transported anywhere. In
case alcohol is used as a preservative all the specimens of a
species should be sorted out and tied together in a small sack
FIG. 94.— Manner of Folding Paper
Envelope. A-B, First fold ; B-C,
second fold ; A-D, third fold ; B-F,
fourth fold ; A-E, flfth fold.
FIG. 95.— Butterfly in Envelope.
PREPARATION, CAKE, AND DISPLAY OF INSECTS. 320
made out of thin netting1, and to this should be attached a label
giving the date and place of capture and a reference to the note-
book. In case cotton layers are employed all the specimens of
a species, if numerous, should be placed in one layer, and n
memorandum to the same purport as the label inserted.
Insects are prepared for the cabinet by being- mounted upon
pins and "expanded." There are various sorts and sizes of
insect-pins, but those made by Klaeger, of Berlin, are generally
preferred at the present time by the leading- entomologists of
the world. The French pins and the so-called " Carlsbad* T
pins " are too long and the points are too fine, and, therefore,
too likely to be injured to make them desirable. The English
pins are too short, and except in the case of very small insects,
are not used by the best collectors. Insects should be mounted
high upon the pin, i.e., in such a way that not more than one-
fifth or at the most one-fourth of the pin shall be exposed above
the body of the specimen. Dr. Htaudinger, the celebrated lepi-
dopterist of Germany, makes it his rule to mount all his speci-
mens in such a way that the wings are elevated upon a plane
one inch above the tip of the pin. The writer has had the
greater part of his collection, of over fifty thousand specimens
of lepidoptera, mounted at an average height of seven-eighths
of an inch above the points of the pins. The " English meth-
od " of mounting low down, and only leaving enough of the
pin exposed below to permit of fixing the specimens in the
cork at the bottoms of the drawers of the cabinet, is rapidly
passing out of vogue, even in England, and is giving place to
the " Continental Method." Insect pins are of various sizes
adapted to the size of the insert which they are to carry. The
most serviceable; sizes and which will be proportioned to the
majority of the insects which the collector is likely to take, are
Klaeger's No. 3 and No. 5. For very large insects higher num-
bers may be employed, and for smaller insects lower numbers,
though in the case of ^« latter it is perhaps better to use the
short English pins and then to mount the specimens upon
the bits of cork or pith which are themselves mounted upon
the longer German pins. Such mounts are known as "double
mounts" (see Fig. 96). The writer desires to utter a caution
against the use of the common black insect-pins so often sold
830
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
FIG. 96.— Double Mount.
C, Long pin ; P, pith ; S,
specimen mounted on
short pin ; L, label.
by dealers, and the sole stock in trade of one or two firms of
opticians in this country. They are very liable to rust at the
point and to bend, and are totally unsuited
for use in humid, tropical, and semi-tropi-
cal climates, or for collections which are to
be transported far over the seas. Beetles
should always be pinned through the right
elytron. Bugs should be pinned through
the scutellum, as the small triangular piece
between the elytra is called. All other in-
sects should be pinned in the middle of the
thorax, and care should always be taken to
set the pins perpendicularly.
Having pinned the specimen the next
step is to expand it properly. In the case
of beetles this is done by simply arranging the feet and the an-
tennae in such a way that they can easily be inspected. In
doing this it' is well to have a frame seven-eighths of an inch
deep, or thereabouts, backed by a thin piece of soft pine, and
covered on top by a sheet of paper, which has been first moist-
ened and then pasted around the edges, and which wrhen dry
expands like a drum-head. (Fig. 97.) Upon this a number of
beetles may be pinned, their feet drawn
out, and there be left to dry. In the
case of lepidopterous insects, and other
insects having considerable expanse of
wing, setting-boards are required. These
are boards provided with a groove in
the middle capable of receiving the body
of the insect, and permitting of the ex-
pansion of their wings laterally. These
boards should be of various widths, so
as to be adapted to insects having various
expanse of wings, and the grooves also
should be of various depths, adapted to insects having bodies
of various size. The best form of a setting-board, with which
the writer is acquainted, is that given in Fig. 98. The narrow
slit below the groove, which is intended for the reception of
the body of the insect, admits of passing the pin down to a
FIG. 97. — Frame for Mounting
Beetles, a, a, Wooden frame; A,
B, paper drumhead.
PREPARATION, CARE, AND DISPLAY OF INSECTS. 331
FIG. 98.— Setting-Board.
proper depth, and the depth is
regulated of course by the piece
at the bottom of the setting-
board. The two side- pieces
should always be from seven-
eighths of an inch to an inch
thick. The best material is soft,
clean pine, or, better still, the
wood of the Kiri-no-Ki (Pauloiv-
nia regalis).
Instead of setting-boards, set-
ting - blocks (see Figs. 100 and
101), may be advantageously employed in setting smaller speci-
mens, especially of the Hesperidse and the Noctuidse, the wings
of which are refractory, and re-
fuse to be treated in the method
that has just been described. In-
stead of using strips of tracing
muslin it is necessary, in the
case of setting - blocks, to use
threads or cords, which may be
adjusted, as is showrn in the fig-
ure. Care should, however, be
taken not to draw the thread or
cord so tightly about the wings of
the specimens as to cut into their vestiture and thus leave marks.
The insects having been adjusted upon the board, care being
taken that the pin is set perpendicularly, the next step is to
FIG. 99.— Setting-Board. (After Riley.)
FIG. 100.— Setting-Block. A, Groove for
body of insect ; ]i, nick for holding thread ;
C, cork to rcreive point of pin passing
through holes in bottom of A.
FIG. 101.— Butterfly Expanded upon Setting-
Block.
332 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
draw out the wings in the position which they aro to maintain
when the specimen is thoroughly dry. This is accomplished
by means of what are known as " setting-needles " (see Fig. 102).
They can easily be made
by inserting ordinary nee-
FIG. io2.-Setting-Needie. dles into handles, which
may be made of some soft
wood. The writer generally employs as handles for his setting-
needles matches, from which the sulphur tip has been removed.
In drawing the wings into position care should be taken to plant
the setting-needle immediately behind the strong nervurc of the
costal margin of the wing. Otherwise tho wings are likely to be
torn and disfigured. The rule in setting lepidoptera is to draw
the anterior wings forward in such a way that their posterior mar-
gins form a right angle with the a::is of the body, which rests in
the groove in the middle of the setting-board. The posterior
wings are then drawn forward in such a wTay as fully to expose
their outline. The next step is to firmly fix the wings in position,
as they have been placed. Some writers recommend for this pur-
pose using short strips of paper over the wings, others recom-
mend placing upon the wings pieces of glass, of a size suf-
ficient to cover the entire wing. A far better plan is to employ
strips of tracing muslin, such as is used by draughtsmen and
engineers. These strips may be secured at the ends of the
setting-board by thumb-tacks, and may be drawn down over the
wings of the specimen and securely held by pins in place. Care
should be always taken to nicely turn up the edge of the strips
nearest to the body, so that a crease or depression may not be
left upon the scales covering the wings of the insects when the
specimen has been thoroughly dried. The wings having been
arranged, the antennae and the feet may be brought forward and
displayed in a natural position. Care should be always taken to
lower the antennae so that they do not stand erect above the head.
In the latter position they are very apt to become broken. A
number of such boards may be conveniently arranged in a box, as
shown in Fig. 103, and if strips of muslin are used, and are firmly
held in place by pins, such a box may be transported from place
to place, upon the backs of men or beasts, and the process of
drying the insects may go on en route, while the naturalist is
PREPARATION, CARE, AND DISPLAY OF INSECTS. ',>'.}'.>
conducting1 his investigations. In this manner the writer carried
four or' five large boxes with him through the interior of Japan
(Plate XXIII., Fig. 2), and succeeded in bringing home with
him nearly six thousand specimens, dried and ready to place in
the cabinet. The length of time which is required for drying,
varies of course a little with the temperature, and the amoiint
of humidity in the atmosphere. In some climates it is almost
impossible to absolutely dry the specimens, in others they dry
very quickly. In the United States a week or ten days will
generally suffice to
secure that rigidity
which is necessaiy
in a cabinet speci-
men.
The process of
drying may be has-
tened advaiitageous-
lj by placing the
setting-boards in a
cool oven. The tem-
perature, however,
should not be above
130° F. Some in-
sects lose their col-
or when dried, and
it is impossible in certain cases to retain them. In some
cases also the bodies of insects shrivel up very greatly and
become distorted. It is very often advisable in such cases to
make an incision into the abdomen and withdraw the viscera
and stuff the body with cotton. Spiders should always be
treated in this way, and so also the larger Mantidre and Lo-
cust id ••>. When the insects have become thoroughly dry, and
their wings are rigid, they may be removed from the setting-
board, and are now ready for the cabinet. In case, however, it
is desired to transport them, as is the case with specimens that
have been collected upon a journey, they may be pinned in
boxes lined with cork or pith, with their wings " shingled" as
in Fig. 104, and they may, if firmly secured to the bottom of the
box;s, be in this shape transported for long distances ; but it is
FIG. 103.— Box for Receiving Setting-Boards, a, Board partly
withdrawn ; b, f -shaped strip to hold board in place ; c, sliding
door of box ; d, tongue on edge of door working in groove at
f roi:t of sides.
334
TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
FIG. 104.— Butterflies Pinned
with their Wings Shingled.
always necessary to pack the box in which they are contained
in an outer box, separating- the inner box from the outer case
by at least two inches of straw, excelsior,
or some other light and elastic substance,
to save the specimens from being1 jarred
in transport.
Specimens that have been preserved in
paper, as described on page 328, in order
to fit them for the cabinet, should be re-
laxed and then expanded. In order to re-
lax them, one of the best methods is to
place the envelope which contains the
specimen between layers of cloth that
have been dampened in pure water, to
which has been added a small quantity of carbolic acid,
enough to prevent mould. Be careful not to add too much
carbolic acid. Another method is to lay the specimens at the
bottom of a jar, half-filled with sand, which has been moist-
ened and well carbolized. The jar should be tightly closed,
so as to retain the moisture. Specimens that have been fas-
tened with pins may be placed on pieces of board, and then
set in a jar, prepared in the way that has been described.
After exposure to the moist atmosphere of the jar, or to the
moisture contained within the towelling, for a period varying
from a few hours to a day, the specimens will be sufficiently
relaxed to permit of them being treated as if they had been
freshly taken, and mounted and expanded upon the setting-
board as described on page 331. It is well to have the top of
the jar, before the lid is placed upon it, covered with a layer of
blotting-paper, or some other substance which will absorb the
moisture which otherwise might drip from the lid upon the
specimens below. This is a precaution which is especially
necessary in the case of butterflies which are of a bright blue
or a pale green color, and which are much disfigured by water
stains.
Mould is one of the great enemies of the collector, and strenu-
ous efforts should be made to prevent its appearance in the cab-
inet or among the specimens. In order to do this, it is well to
secure a thorough desiccation of the specimens, but where it is
PREPARATION", CARE, AND DISPLAY OF INSECTS. 335
impossible to thoroughly dry them, moulding may be prevented
to a greater or less extent by placing1 between the paper enve-
lopes pieces of blotting-paper which have been saturated with
carbolic acid and permitted to dry. The sides of the boxes con-
taining the specimens may also be painted with carbolic acid.
Naphthaline in ciystals may be introduced among the enve-
lopes, and this appears in many cases to serve as a partial
preventive of mould. "When a specimen has been attacked
by mould, the mould may be largely removed by thorough dry-
ing in a cool oven and then dusting off the specimen with a
soft camel's-hair pencil that has been rubbed in carbolic acid
and dried.
Specimens sometimes become greasy, and it is then desira-
ble, if possible, to remove the grease with which their bodies
and wings are saturated. The only method which can be em-
ployed advantageously is that of washing out the grease
by means of benzoline, or some of the allied volatile mineral
oils.
By immersing a greasy specimen for a considerable time in
gasoline, it is possible to remove the grease. The specimen
having been thus exposed should be placed in a cool spot, free
from dust, and all the gasoline should be allowed te evaporate.
Care should be taken to conduct this process away from fiiv
and lights, in order to prevent an explosion. The writer has
found that the best method for removing grease is to allow tin-
gasoline to fall drop by drop upon the thorax of the specimen.
The specimen is therefore placed in a very large glass jar, say
six inches in diameter, and is fixed at the bottom upon a piece
of cork, tightly secured in place. The gasoline is placed above
and is allowed to filter down from the bottle in which it is con-
tained upon the specimen drop by drop. In this way the grease
is gradually \vashed out, and will be found after a while at tin-
bottom of the jar in the form of thick globules, the density of
which causes them to sink to the bottom. In the case of some
large bombycid moths the writer has washed out as much as a
teaspoon t'ul of animal fat from the body and wings of the speci-
men, in the manner that has been described.
The receptacles into which entomologists place their collec-
tions vary somewhat according to the taste and the length of
386 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
the purse of the collector. Some large collections are con-
tained in boxes, and most of the coleopterists of this country,
so far as the writer knows, have adopted these as receptacles
for their collections. The boxes should be about two inches
deep in the clear, the bottom should be lined with the best
quality of cork, about one-fourth of an inch in thickness, and
the whole papered inside with white paper. The lid should
be fastened upon the lower part of the box, either by a tongue
and groove or by thin strips nailed around on the inside and
projecting above the margin of the bottom portion at least half
an inch. These boxes should also be hinged. The material
should be wrell seasoned. Double boxes with cork on the top
and 011 the bottom are sometimes used, and these may be pre-
pared with backs resembling books, and may be placed upon
their ends upon shelves. They should not be laid one upon
the other, as the insects pinned upon the upper side are liable
sometimes, through jarring, to become detached, and falling
out to cause a breakage among the specimens. The writer em-
ploys in his own collection drawers twenty-two inches long,
eighteen inches wide, and two inches deep, covered with glass,
the glass cover being attached to the bottom by a tongue and
groove.
The specimens should be kept in the dark, as exposure to
light bleaches them, sooner or later. Great pains should be
taken to keep out dust, mould, and insect pests, such as An-
threnus and Derrnestes. Naphthaline crystals destroy mites
and they cannot exist where it is abundantly present. Aii-
threnus and Dermestes may be kept out of collections by naph-
thaline, but Avhen they have been once introduced they will
remain and propagate in spite of the presence of the drug. In
order to exterminate them various agents are employed. The
best is perhaps chloroform, and next to this carbon bisulphide.
In buying the latter drug, care should be taken to purchase the
washed and purified article, which is not as malodorous as the
common varieties which used formerly to be sold by druggists.
It is, however, highly explosive when mixed in quantity with
the air, and care should be taken not to use it in proximity to a
light. It has the advantage of destroying at once the imago,
the larva, and, perhaps, the eggs of museum-pests. The 'writer
PREPARATION, CARE, AND DISPLAY OF INSECTS. 337
makes it a point annually, in the early summer, to place suffi-
cient chloroform or carbon bichloride in his cabinet drawers to
exterminate anything1 that may be living1 there, and thus secures
comparative immunity from insect attacks.
Instructions as to the use of labels may be restricted to the
simple advice to make them small enough to permit of their
beiug1 placed upon the pins bearing the insects, and to have
them written legibly. Of course every label should bear, if
it is possible for the student to determine them, the generic
and the specific names of the insects, and that of the author
of the specific name, together with the date and locality of
capture. In writing labels a small crow-quill pen is to be pre-
ferred.
A great many instruments of different sorts will suggest
themselves to the collector in the process of his labors as being-
more or less useful, but none will prove more so than the for-
ceps. It is impossible to do good work in the cabinet without
a forceps, and those made by Blake, of Philadelphia, are the
very best.
Books to be Consulted by the Collector for further Information as to
Methods of M«iii/»il<iiin<j
Packard : Guide to the Study of Insects. 8vo. Henry Holt A:
Co., New York.
Scudder: Butterflies. Svo. Henry Holt <fc Co., New York.
Kir'ny and Spence : Introduction to Entomology. Various
editions.
McCook: American Spiders.
Strecker: American Moths and Butterflies.
A. great deal of practical and valuable information is to be
derived from the pages of the following journals:
The Canadian Entomologist.
The Bulletin of the Brooklyn Entomological Society.
Psyche.
22
338 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
Names of Dealers in Entomological Supplies wlio are to be Recom-
mended.
John Akhurst, 78 Ashland Place, Brooklyn, N. Y.; pins, etc.
John Burr, North Fifth Street, Camden, N. J.; boxes, cabinets,
etc.
Armstrong-, Brother & Co., Pittsburgh, Pa.; cork. The largest
cork manufacturing firm in the United States. Will cut
cork of any size which may be ordered, within practical
limits.
Blake & Co., 55 North Seventh Street, Philadelphia ; forceps.
PAET VI.— GENERAL INFORMATION.
CHAPTER XLIV.
INSECT PESTS AND POISONING.
THE PESTS. — If an island of bare rock should be born to-day
in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, and an nnpoisoned skin of
bird or mammal laid down upon it to-morrow morning1, I would
wager that Dcnnestes lardarius would find that skin before sun-
set. If you were to prepare a skin without poison, and lock it
up immediately in the bowels of a burglar-proof safe, not to be
opened for six months, at the end of that time you would find it
swarming with Denncstcs. If you ever omit to poison anything
in the shape of a vertebrate specimen, be sure your sin and the
beastly bugs will find you out.
DERMESTES. — The greatest enemy of the zoological collector
and conservator, and one which is world-wide in its distribution,
is a small beetle, one-third of an inch in length, commonly
called the " bacon beetle." Its flight is rather feeble, but " it
gets there just the same." The most common species, Derm <-.•<-
teslarda/riu8} is of a dark, dirty-brown color, with a broad, trans-
verse band of dull gray encircling the middle of the body. The
imago is not of much consequence as a destroyer, but the lar-
va, a nasty, hairy, brown-backed, and white-bellied abomina-
tion half an inch long, and with an appetite like a hog. is the
incarnation of all that is pestiferous. A skull that has been
" roughed out " and put away without poisoning will soon be
literally swarming with /A /'///r.vA.s larvae, and half buried with
the brown, powdery excrementation they leave behind. If the
curator ever sees a fine, brown dust falling in little heaps out
340 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
rf
of any part of a mounted specimen, lie may know that Dermestes
larvae are at work.
Not long ago the National Museum was visited by another
species of the bacon beetle, Dermestes moculatiis, a gray-colored
variety, beside which his congener seemed harmless and inof-
fensive. Maculatus was an unmitigated terror. He disdained
to graze modestly on the outside of a specimen, as did lar-
darius, but simply began to eat wherever he "lit," and went
straight in to a depth of an inch or so, as if shot out of a gun.
An unhappy stuffed monkey that once crossed the track of this
little fiend had half a dozen neat round holes eaten through
the dry skin of his side, and straight on into the hard tow filling
for quite an inch. A gimlet could not have done the work half
so well. The most ridiculous thing was that this insatiable
little monster attacked a plaster cast, and bored it full of holes
also ! Fortunately for the National Museum, the stay of this
highly interesting stranger was of brief duration. He came in
1885, and vanished that same year — so far as my observations
went.
MOTHS. — Next in destructiveness are the tiny moths, of which
four species are to be fought in the museum and the household.
These are the clothes moth ( Tinea jflavifrontella), the fur moth
(T. pelionella), the carpet moth (T. tapetzeUa), and the grain
moth ( T. granella). The perfect moth is of course by prefer-
ence a night-flying insect, and very seldom flies in the daytime
except when disturbed. The imago is harmless, but the larva—
a tiny, white worm no thicker than a pin, and about one-tenth
of an inch in length — will soon shave the hair off an unpoi-
soned elk or deer head more smoothly than you could do it
with the best razor ever made. Of course moth larva? are most
active and destructive during the breeding season — the warm
months from May to October — but in warm rooms they some-
times keep at work all through the winter.
In one sense the moth is the zoologist's most dreaded foe,
for the reason that its work is so subtle and unseen. Often the
first intimation the victim has of the presence of his enemy is
when dusting a favorite head he suddenly knocks off a section
of hair half a foot square, exposing underneath the smooth, bare
skin covered with fine gray dust. The larvae of the moth attack
INSECT PESTS AND POISONING. 341
birds and quadrupeds in one way only, that is by eating the
roots of the hair or feathers, and the epidermis. Mounted
heads of large ruminant animals are the particular prey of
these abominable pests, because they cannot be protected by
glass cases, and are seldom touched save with a feather dust' T.
In ethnological collections all the garments of skin and
leather, and all the textile fabrics are subject to the attacks of
the Tineids, as they also are to those of the species to be no-
ticed next.
ANTHRENUS. — Although I have seen this "buffalo bug" try
hard to make an impression on mounted mammals, I have not
yet seen it do harm except to furs and leather or woolen gar-
ments. The adult buffalo bug (Anthrenus lepidus) is a tiny,
round, brown beetle, with white spots on its elytra, and, as
usual, it is the larvae that do the mischief.
SYMPTOMS OF THE PRESENCE OF INSECT PESTS. — Whenever little
heaps of brown dust are seen accumulating here and there on a
pedestal underneath a mounted specimen, know that dermestes
are actively at work somewhere above. Sometimes the larva-
will even show themselves on the hair, which means a bad case.
If a perfect moth is seen flying in a case, or resting on a speci-
men, search at once for the larvse. The best way to do this is
to go over a specimen with a rough brush, or a comb, to see if
the hair pulls out at any point. If a tuft of hair gives way at its
roots, and you see a bare spot underneath, it means moth larva >.
POISONING. — Let us take first the case of a mounted specimen
which is known to be infested with the larv;e of either Deni/< •*/<•*
or Tiueids. It must be treated thoroughly all over with a
powerful poison, not only to kill the insects already there, but
to poison any larvae that may be hatched hereafter and seek to
attack it.
If possible, remove tho specimen from its pedestal, and beat
out of it whatever dust it may contain. Procure a quantity of
alcohol sufficient when diluted with fifty per cent, of water to
completely saturate the hair (or feathers) of the specimen, and
dissolve in it some corrosive sublimate — about one ounce to
every three pints of the liquid. The point to strive for in mak-
ing up such a solution is to make it as strong with <lie corrosive
sublimate as it can be without leaving on dark hair a gray (or
342 TAXIDERMY A1STD ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
white) deposit when the liquid has evaporated. In practice I
always mix the liquid, and then test it with a tuft of black or
brown hair. If the deposit left is quite apparent to the eye, a
little more alcohol and water must be added. The principle of
the process is simply this : The alcohol, being- at once very pene-
trating and very volatile, and also capable of combining1 chemi-
cally with the corrosive sublimate, is used as a vehicle for the
distribution of the poison. The poison is carried to the roots
of the hair and left there as a deposit when the liquid evapo-
rates. In Chapter XVIII. the method of applying this solution
is described. Arsenic water, also described there, is equally good,
and any intelligent person can make up either solution and
apply it successfully without the slightest difficulty.
Vv hen the specimen has dried, the hair must be dressed by
brushing and combing it. If the white poison shows on the
hair, take a sponge, and with either hot water or alcohol sponge
off the surface of the hair, leaving all the unseen poison undis-
turbed. If your solution contains the proper amount of poison,
and is thoroughly applied, I warrant that insects will never
again touch that specimen, even though it should exist a thou-
sand years.
It often happens that moths get into cases of birds, or mam-
mals, or insects, which cannot be treated as above without
damaging the specimens. In such an event there are several
poisons of a volatile character which give off fumes so deadly
that no insect can live in them. The best for this purpose is
naphthaline crystals, exposed in the cases in little bags made of
musquito-netting, used in abundant quantity, and left in the
cases, which must of course be kept closed as tightly as possi-
ble. In insect collections each box should have a little cone
of crystals,* as a standing menace to all would-be marauders.
Liquid or crystal bisulphide of carbon, exposed in saucers on
the bottom of a tightly closed case will also kill whatever living
insects may be found therein ; but it does not destroy eggs, and
by the time it has evaporated another generation of destroyers
may have been born, hungrier than the first.
A half-ounce bag of naphthaline crystals will last about throe
months. Mr. John B. Smith, who published in the " Proceed-
* Made and sold by Blake & Co., Philadelphia.
INSECT PESTS AND POISONING. 343
ings of the Entomological Society of Washington," vol. i., No. 2,
p. 113, a very interesting paper on " Museum Pests," found in
treating some boxes of coleoptera that were infested with Tro</<>
i/crtna that both bisulphide of carbon and naphthaline killed all
larvae and imagoes, and held all the eggs in a dormant condition,
even through the summer months, until the poison had all
evaporated, when the eggs began to hatch.
At present naphthaline in the form of crystals has become the
most popular of the various volatile poisons, and among or-
nithologists, mammalogists, and entomologists is very generally
used. It prevents mould, destroys bacteria and schizomycetes ;
the salt is perfectly neutral, is not poisonous to man, and is
cheap, costing only twenty-five cents per pound.
POISONING TEXTILE FABKICS AND SKIN CLOTHING. — Objects of
this class can not be put through any liquid poison, for the
reason that some would be made hard and stiff, some would lose
their colors, and all would come out in bad shape generally.
To meet the exigencies of such cases one alternative is to
poison the atmosphere of an air-tight case with some of the
volatile poisons already mentioned, and the other is to treat
each article with some powerful liquid poison, applied as a fine
spray with an ordinary atomizer of gutta-percha, which can be
purchased for from one to two dollars. The immense collec-
tions of the department of ethnology in the National Museum
have necessitated a great amount of poisoning in both these
ways, especially the latter, which has the merit of being perma-
nent. In the "Smithsonian Report for 1887," vol. ii., pp. 549-
558, Mr. Walter Hough has published a very complete, lucid,
and valuable paper on "The Preservation of Museum Speci-
mens from Insects, and the Effects of Dampness," which every
zoological conservator should read and hold for ready reference.
In spraying large objects Mr. Hough uses either a Shaw \-
Geary No. 2 air compressor (cost, $15) or a four-nozzle gutta-
percha atomi/rr (*2.50), and the spray is from the following so-
lution :
Saturated solution of arsenic acid and alcohol 1 pint.
Strong carbolic acid 25 drops.
Strychnine 20 grains.
Alcohol (strong) 1 quart.
Naphtha, crude or i efined 1 pint.
344 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
For treating specimens of ordinary size with the concentrated
fumes of bisulphide of carbon, the National Museum uses a
galvanized sheet-iron tank 3x2x2 feet, which has around
its upper edge a deep groove filled with water, into which the
rim of the cover fits when the tank is closed. The centre of
the cover contains an air-hole, which is also capable of being
hermetically closed in the same way. This tank should be used
in the open air, if possible, so that the fumes will not injure
the health of the operator.
POISONING RUGS. — It has long been a problem how to poison
a fur rug to protect it from insects, and yet to keep out of it
the dry mineral poisons which would be injurious to the health
of the little ones, the dog, and the cat, who are " tenants in
common " of the bear-skin on the floor. Mr. F. S. Webster has
solved the difficulty by poisoning all his rugs on the inside
with our old and valued friend, arsenical soap. It strikes into
and through the skin, of course, and, contrary to previous ex-
pectations, it is by no means offensive, or even noticeable by
odor in the finished rug.
FURS. — Even in Washington, the City of Moths, Mrs. Horna-
day carried the family rugs and furs, and all woolen clothing,
through eight summers, unscathed, by the liberal use of cam-
phor gum alone. If the crumbled gum is sprinkled liberally
into the folds of anything when it is being folded or rolled up,
its protection against moths is assured.
INSECT POWDERS. — For the benefit of the American housewife
I will mention the fact that for the complete annihilation of
ants, roaches, water-bugs, and the like, there is nothing that I
know of that is so far-reaching and so deadly as a powder pro-
duced in California called buhac, costing sixty cents per pound.
The price is high, but the powder is well worth it — and this is
an absolutely free advertisement.
THE EFFECT OF POISONS ON THE TAXIDERMIST. — Arsenical soap
is by all odds the safest poison that can possibly be used. It
gives off 110 poisonous fumes whatsoever, its presence in the
mouth, nose, or eyes is always detected instantly, and the
worst that it ever does is to get into a cut or under the ends
of the finger-nails of the careless taxidermist, and make a fes-
tering sore which is well in a few days — a purely local ill.
INSECT PESTS AND POISONING. 345
Dry arsenic is more injurious. It sometimes poisons the
fingers of a careless operator, and if it is inhaled in the form of
dust the effect may be serious. A few persons are very sus-
ceptible to the effects of dry arsenic, others are not. If the
blood is in a healthy condition there is little to fear from it,
except through gross carelessness. I have used, all told, prob-
ably more than a hundred and fifty pounds of arsenic in various
forms, and never had an hour's illness in consequence, nor any-
thing more serious than a sore finger.
Corrosive sublimate is much more powerful and more dan
gerous. It should never be used in the preparation of a skin
before it is mounted ; after mounting it may, with care, be used
quite safely.
Strychnine is far too dangerous to be used by a taxidermist
save in poisoning animals he wishes to secure as scientific
specimens.
CHAPTEE XLV.
USEFUL INFOKMATION.
Recipe for Making Arsenical Soap.
White bar soap, soft rather than hard 2 pounds.
Powdered arsenic 2 "
Camphor 5 ounces.
Subcarbonate of potash 6 "
Alcohol 8 "
Directions : The soap should be the best quality of laundry
soap, and of such composition that it can be reduced with water
to any degree of thinness. Soap which becomes like jelly when
melted will not answer, and should never be used.
Slice the soap and melt it in a small quantity of water over a
slow fire, stirring- sufficiently to prevent its burning1. When
melted add the potash, and stir in the powdered arsenic. Next
add the camphor, which should be dissolved in the alcohol at
the beginning of the operation. Stir the mass thoroughly, boil
it down to the consistency of thick molasses, and pour it into
an earthen or wooden jar to cool and harden. Stir it occasion-
ally while cooling to prevent the arsenic from settling- at the
bottom. "When cold it should be like lard or butter. For use,
mix a small quantity with water until it resembles buttermilk,
and apply with a common paint-brush.
The prices charged for the manufactured article by chemists
who make arsenical soap to sell are out of all proportion to the
cost and labor involved, and every taxidermist who uses much
of it should by all means manufacture his own supply.
Hendley's Enamel Garnish. —Take equal parts of ether and
alcohol, mix them, and add one-third as much gun-cotton. To
every gill of this mixture add six drops of olive-oil to give elas-
ticity. It is a good plan to keep two bottles, one containing
USEFUL INFORMATION".
the varnish ready for use, and the other containing- the proper
mixture of ether, alcohol and olive oil, to use in thinning the
varnish when it g-ets too thick. This is a very superior varnish
being1 absolutely colorless, and of high gloss.
The irir/,rrx/H 'i,in r Solution for ihe Preservation of FI<'*/i>/
Objects Entire.—
Alum 500 grains.
Salt 125 "
Saltpetre CO "
Potash 300 "
Arsenic trioxide (white arsenic) 100 "
Dissolve in one quart of boiling water. Cool and filter,
and for every quart of solution add four quarts of glycerine and
one quart of alcohol. Immerse the objects to be preserved in
this solution, and keep them in it. It is but little else than
our old familiar friend, the salt-and-alum bath, with enough
glycerine added to prevent the excess of alum from unduly
hardening and shriveling the specimens.
Composition for Use in Modeling Tongues, Mouths, and in General
Fancy- Work. — " Procure 3 pounds white glue, 1 pint raw linseed
oil, and 1 pound of resin. Heat the oil and resin, then add hot
glue and stir thoroughly. Thicken with Paris white until the
mixture has the proper consistency to mould when warm. This
composition soon dries, becomes very hard, and can be colored
or gilded. Fancy decorations of any design can readily be
made from moulds of plaster or wood, and be glued on to shields
and cases, thereby saving the expense of carving. The above is
my own composition, which I have successfully employed for
many years." — (•/. H. Batty.)
( 'nittjinxifioii for Snow Scenes.—" Crush burnt alum with a roller,
and remove small lumps. Add frosting, which has been pulver-
ized in a mortar to the proper degree of fineness." — (Baffi/.)
I'di-nix/i Cnffrr (to remove old varnish from antlers, teeth,
wood, or from the surface of an old oil-painting). — Take a suffi-
cient quantity of eighty or ninety per cent, alcohol, and slowly
pour into it clear spirits of turpentine until the mixture be-
comes of a milky color. Then cork the bottle and shake the
mixture thoroughly, and it is ready for uss. Apply it with a
small sponge, rub the surface vigorously for a moment only,
348 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
then dip a rag in boiled linseed-oil and apply it to the cleaned
surface. The varnish cutter acts almost instantly, and if left on
too long1 the surface of a painting might be injured.
To Prevent Mould in Boxes of Specimens. — Take some carbolic-
acid crystals (forty cents per pound), melt them in the sun, and
with the resulting liquid acid paint the entire inside of each
box, and, if possible, pack contents with naphthaline crystals.
This is efficacious in boxes of small skins of birds and mam-
mals, of insects and the like, even in hot climates, but of course
does not apply to boxes of large specimens which contain a
great amount of moisture.
To Polish Hard Wood. — 1st. Rub the surface thoroughly
with raw linseed-oil, turpentine, and powdered pumice-stone.
2d. Give the surface a smooth coat of shellac. 3d. When dry,
take fine sand-paper and go over it rather lig-htly. 4th. Give
the surface a good coat of hard oil finish (a white varnish), and
let it harden. 5th. When quite dry rub down with raw oil,
turpentine, and pumice-stone, to soften the gloss of the var-
nish, and give a polish instead. For rubbing, use a piece of
hair-cloth, or clean burlaps.
Cement for Gumming Labels to Minerals and Shells.— ' Pulver-
ized gum Arabic, 4 ounces ; pulverized white sugar, 2 ounces ;
starch, 4 drachms.
Dissolve all separately in as little water as convenient. Dis-
solve starch in cold water, then stir it into sugar water, and
then that mixture into the gum water. Boil with great care, as
burning will spoil the whole. It is well to use a tin vessel
raised from the bottom of another vessel containing water.
After the starch ceases to make the mixture look milky it is
cooked, but at least an hour's time will be required. Keep in
large mouthed, tightly corked bottles, or when done pour into
a tray covered with strong paper, spreading it evenly over the
paper, and allow it to dry. When dry enough, moisten back
of paper and remove it from the gum, dry again thoroughly,
break into fragments and preserve for use in wide-mouth stop-
pered jar." — (Southwick & Jenck's " Random Notes.")
Arsenic Water (for poisoning mammal skins, etc). — Water, 4
quarts ; arsenic, 4 ounces. Mix, stir and boil until the arsenic
is all taken up.
USEFUL INFORMATION. 349
THE TREATMENT OF FURS AND PELTRIES. — Inasmuch as the
readers of this book may sometime desire to preserve a few
mammal skins as furs, or to be made up as rugs, I will quote
entire, verbatim et literatim, a circular of instructions lately
issued by one of the largest fur houses in this country, Messrs.
William Macnaughtaii's Sons, of New York City. Observe par-
ticularly, however, that skins prepared thus are utterly worth-
less to the taxidermist and tlie scientific museum. They are good
for furs only :
" Directions for Fur Collectors and Trappers, to Insure High
/'rices, Heady Sales, and Save from Losses through Ignorance.—
' Cased : ' Ermine, fisher, fox, lynx, martin, mink, opossum,
otter, skunk, must be ' cased,' that is, not cut open. In skin-
ning, cut at the rump, and turn the skin inside out (like a
glove) over the body of the animal, leaving the pelt side out.
Then after scraping, cleaning, and drying, turn the skin back
again while it is soft and easily managed, leaving the fur side
out. Then put a thin board inside the skin, cut the natural
shape of it, stretching the skin to its fullest extent, but not so
much as to make the fur thin. Too much stretching spreads
the fur over a large surface, and makes it thin and lacking in
richness. A liberal supply of good boards should be kept on
hand. Never use bent sticks, bows, or anything irregular in
shape or that yields. "When the above are ' opened ' they have
a Southern appearance that lessens the value greatly.
" ' Open : ' badger, bear, beaver, cats, raccoon, wolves, wol-
verine, must be ' open ;' that is, cut open, up the belly from
rump to head. After scraping, cleaning, and drying, stretch a
uniformly oblong shape, to the fullest extent of the skin, but
not so much as to make the fur thin. AVhen thoroughly dry,
trim off legs, shanks, nippers, and any little pieces that spoil
the appearance of skin.
" E;r<r}>iioiix : Skunk, long stripe, such as come from the Ter-
ritories and sections of California, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and
Iowa, cut open and stretch oblong, as explained. Skunk, with
the white stripe (or any portion) shaved out, blackened, or tam-
pered with, must be collected at half price. Opossum from
Indian Territory, cut open, and stretch oblong as explained.
Chop off the tails where the fur ends, as they make opossum
350 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
look poorly and lessen their value. Beaver are sometimes
stretched almost round, but appear very much better stretched
oblong1. Value by the skin, never by the pound. They rapidly
lose heavily in weight. They bring1 most sold by the skin.
Muskrats must be ' cased,' but with fur side in. Chop off the
tails as explained. Skin at the nose and make rumps square.
Round tails have less value and do not sell well. Muskrats must
not be injured by shooting or spearing1. Trap them.
" Skins that have dried without proper care can be treated
same as fresh, green skins. Otherwise they have no vah;e.
Dissolve a handful of common salt in a pail of fresh water, and
apply frequently with brush or rag (to pelt side only, as it
spoils appearance to wet the fur) until the pelt becomes per-
fectly soft. Then handle as explained. The same with ' open '
skins.
" Cautions : Do not cure with alum or salt. It injures them
for dressing and spoils their sale. Do not dry skins at a fire,
or in the sun, or in smoke. It often ' burns ' them ; when they
then spoil, and ruin on being1 dressed. Dry in the open air
where shady. Meaty skins often ' burn.' The meat and fat on
them heats and ' burns ' them, and they then go to pieces and
rot on being dressed. Too much warmth curls and spoils the
top fur or hair. Never stuff furs of any kind ; dry and stretch
as explained. Do not stretch out the noses and make them
pointed. It gives a Southern appearance and lessens value.
Do not cut off heads, ears, or noses, or mutilate in any way. It
lessens value and injures sales. Remove as much of bone from
tail as possible, otherwise the tail rots.
' Trapping : Fur-bearing1 animals must not be killed till they
have at least a fair growth of fur. Stop trapping as soon in
early spring- as the fur begins to shed or becomes thin, or a lit-
tle faded. These too early or too late caught furs are a dis-
grace to fur trappers and collectors, and a wasteful, worthless
slaughter."
CHAPTER XL VI.
THE BEST BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR THE TAXIDERMIST
AND COLLECTOR.
IT is manifestly impossible even to name under this head a
tenth part of the excellent books which might well be given
place, It is also inexpedient to include in a list, that must of
necessity be brief, the names of special works relating" to the
fauna of other countries than North America. Having- been
from first to last a diligent user of books in the course of my
work, and ever on the alert for something new in printed word
or picture that would be of practical use, I will give here the
titles of the books that have proven of the greatest practical
value to me. I must also in this connection strongly urge the
young- taxidermist and collector to supply himself with as many
of these standard works as he can possibly procure. If dili-
gently studied they are bound to save him from many an error,
and richly repay their cost.
GENERAL ZOOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION.
"Steele's Popular Zoology." By Professor J. W. P. Jenks.
American Book Company, New York. $1.00.
A model manual ; of great value to the student because of its
clearness, conciseness, and wealth of information. Copiously
and elegantly illustrated.
"Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London;" also
"Transactions."
Contains a great number of fine animal plates of much value
to professional taxidermists. The series is extensive and very
costly, and is therefore usually inaccessible except when it can
be reached in some scientific library.
352 TAXIDEEMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
ON MAMMALS.
;e Illustrated Natural History: Mammals." Kev. J. G. Wood.
Eoutledge, London, 1861. Price about $4.00. Get the origi-
nal edition if possible.
This book has been of more help to me than any other I have
ever found.
" Quadrupeds of North America." Audubon and Bachman.
Out of print and difficult to obtain, but very valuable.
'The Mammalia, in Word and Picture." By Carl Yogi and
F. Specht. Translated from the German by Geo. G.
Chisholm. D. Appleton & Co., 1-5 Bond Street, New York,
1890. Super royal 4to. $12.00.
This great work contains the finest illustrations of mammals,
both singly and in groups, ever published in any country. The
groups represented are wonderfully fine and life-like, and must
be seen to be appreciated. No mammal taxidermist can afford
to be without this work.
ON BIRDS.
' The American Ornithologist's Union Code of Nomenclature,
and Check-List of North American Birds." L. S. Foster,
35 Pine Street, New York City. $3.00.
Indispensable to the American collector, because it is the
highest authority on the classification and nomenclature of
North American birds. Thanks to this work, it is no longer
necessary to take a daily paper in order to keep posted on the
latest changes in bird nomenclature. The names adopted by
Baird (1858), Coues (1873), Eidgway (1880), and Coues (1882) are
all given. No illustrations.
'' Key to North American Birds." By Dr. Elliott Coues. Estes
& Lauriat, Boston. $7.50.
This great work — indispensable to every ornithologist — con-
sists of a masterly treatise on systematic ornithology and the
anatomy of birds, a key by which even the tyro can learn to
THE BEST BOOKS OF REFERENCE. I too
analyze any American bird and identify it, and also a valuable
treatise on " Field Ornithology," or bird-collecting-.
'Nomenclature of North American Birds." Robert Ridgway.
Sold by F. B. Webster, 400 Washington Street, Boston.
S7.50.
Especially designed for use in the determination of species.
" Illustrated Natural History : Birds." Eev. J. G. Wood. Bout-
ledge, London, 1801. Price about $4.00. Get the original
edition.
To a bird taxidermist this is the most valuable book ever pub-
lished in a single volume, because of its wealth of excellent
illustrations. Of special value in mounting strange foreign
birds. Beware of the later editions.
" Studer's Birds of North America.'' Illustrated by Theodore
Jasper. Large royal quarto. Jacob H. Studer, New
York. $25.00.
Contains 119 plates, and a colored figure of every species of
North American bird known at the date of its publication. A
notable work. The illustrations arc of great value to young
taxidermists as models by which to mount birds.
"Birds of North America." J. J. Audulxm.
This superb work is out of print: rare and costly. The oc-
tavo edition is to be found in most large libraries, however, and
every bird taxidermist should at least know where the copy
nearest to him is to be found, and how to gain access to it in
time of need.
" Oology of New England." E. A. Capen. Sold by Frank B.
Webster, 409 Washington Street, Boston. $8.75.
This is the finest illustrated work on birds' eggs ever pui>
lished in this country.
ON HKI TII.F.S.
" Illustrated Natural History: Reptiles.' Rev. J. G. Wood.
I tout ledge, London, 18U1.
Uniform with volumes on Mammals and Birds.
23
o54 TAXIDERMY AND ZOOLOGICAL COLLECTING.
ON FISHES.
"American Fishes." G. Brown Goode. Standard Book Co.,
New York, 1888. $5.00.
An elegant work, of convenient size. Comprehensive and
eminently useful. Fully illustrated. No collector or student
of American fishes can afford to be without it.
" The Fishery Industries of the United States." Section I. By
G. Brown Goode and Associates. 2 vols. Complete and ex-
haustive, both in text and plates, and very valuable. Gov-
ernment publication. Sold at cost by the U. S. Fish Com-
mission, Washing-ton.
' Introduction to the Study of Fishes." Albert Gunther. A. &:
C. Black, Edinburg-h. '
ON INSECTS.
See the end of Chapter XLIV.
ON INVERTEBRATES,
" The Ocean World." Louis Fig-uier. Cassell & Co., New York.
<jtO Kf)
•P^.ou.
" Recent and Fossil Shells." S. P. Woodward, London. John
Weale, 1856. (Apply to Bernard Quaritch, London.)
A very handy and useful manual for the field. Many illustra-
tions. Price about $1.50.
" Structural and Systematic Conchology." Geo. W. Tryon.
Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. $12.00.
A great work ; complete, exhaustive, and richly illustrated.
FOR SUGGESTIONS or GROUPS OF ANIMALS.
" Homes Without Hands." Rev. J. G. Wood. Long-mans, Green
& Co., London. Price about $3.00.
' Mammalia in Word and Picture." Specht and Yogi, already
described.
THE BEST BOOKS OF REFERENCE.
MISCELLANEOUS.
" The Sportsman's Library," as advertised by the Forest <m<l
Stream Publishing1 Company, 318 Broadway, New York, con-
tains an attractive and valuable selection of books on subjects
of special interest to the sportsman, naturalist, and traveller.
It includes books by specialists on such subjects as " Camping
and Trapping," " Hunting- and Shooting-," " Angling," ' Boating-
and Yachting1," " Guide-Books and Maps," " Horse," " Kennel,"
"Natural History/' and miscellaneous works. The list, as a
whole, is an excellent one to select from.
Of course no one with a spark of interest in hunting1 and the
natural history of the higher vertebrates will be without For<'*t
"IK/ tff !•<•(! m — a whole sportsman's and naturalist's library in it-
self,—or The Field, or Sport* Afeld. No young1 ornithologist
can get along without his best friend, the Ornithologist and Oolo-
f//.< and it would indeed be rank heresy for the professional
bird-man to ignore the stately and infallible Auk.
INDEX
ACCESSORIES, artificial, 338-339
natural, 247
Africa, destruction of game in, 2
Agassiz, Professor Louis, 72
"Agassiz Tank," for alcoholic specimens,
72-73
Albatross, 62
Alee*, nialrltix, 2-18
Alcohol, preservation of specimens in, 66,
70, 71-75, 83, 127, 202-204
Alcoholometer, 75
Aldrich, P. W.,219
Alectorides, treatment of, 65
Alligators, collecting, 66-68
mounting, 2, (4-206
skeletons of, 293-294
Alum, use of, 32, 45, 51, 61, 68, 115, 162
American Museum of Natural History, 109,
236. 249
Ammonia, use of, 322
Anatomy, caution against detailed external,
112
Antennae, 332
Anthrenus, 336, 341
Apes, treatment of large, 43-45
Apparatus for drying larvae, 315
for inflating larvae, 314
for mounting larvae, 315
Arsenic, use of, 32, 51, 64, 115, 148, 151,
344-345
Arsenic water, 342, 3 IS
Arsenical soap, use of, 32, 15, 51, 61, 65, 68,
118, 132, 14S, !<;:>. 1(17
recipe for making, 34(5
Artificial branches, 127
foliage in group-, 238-239
Attitudes of animals, 111, 121, 171-172, 192,
205
of skeletons, 288
BACKGROUNDS, painted, for cases and
groups, 221-222
Bailly, Jules K. 1)., grotesque groups by, 227
Bath, xef Salt iind-alum bath
Batrachians, 2! 12 2 3
Bats, mounting, on glass, 127-128
mounting skeletons of, 291
Battle in the Tree-tops, 233, 2:', I
Beetles, collecting, in alcohol, 328
frame for mounting, 330
Bird, names of external parts of, 47
Birds, arrangement of feathers on, 182
collecting, best season for, 16
collecting skins of small, 46-57
determination of sex in, 56
gro'.ips of, 224, 232, 235, 249-250
mounting large, 191-197
mounting small, 183-190
mounting skeletons of, 287, 292-293
painting mounted, 256
relaxing dry skins of, 179-182
shooting, as a pastime, 18
skeletonizing, 276-278
skinning large, 58-65
wrapping skins of, 53-55
Bison, American, extermination of the, 1
group of, by the author, 234-235, 245, 246
manikin for, 148
mounting the skeleton of, 296
specimens of, collected by author, 234
Blood on specimens, 42, 47, 198, 201
Body, artificial, for birds, 184, 391-192
Bone-scrapers, 2*i>
Books of reference on birds, 352
on fishes, 354
on general zoology, 351
on groups of animals, 355
on insects, 3.'!7
on invertebrates, 354
(in mammals, 352
in "Sportsman's Library," 355
miscellaneous, 355
I'.nxrs for collecting insects, 323, 324, 332
for exhibiting insects, 335-336
for relaxing skins, 180
for tools, 11
Breeding-cages, 317, 318
Breeding larvae, 816-319
Brushes for painting specimens, 252
BulValo, .«'<• Bison
Butterflies, breeding larvae of, 317
collecting, 325, 332
CAGES for breeding larvae, 317, 318
Capybara, 1(13
Carbon bisulphide, use of, 336, 342
Carbolic acid, use of, 61, 323
crystals prevent mould, 348
Carving wooden skulls and leg bones, 104-
106
INDEX.
Carpocapsa, 306
Cases of ornamental taxidermy, 320-22-1
Casts, 21, 25
making moulds and, 259-270
of mammals in the tiesh, 268
of fishes and reptiles, 209-270
painting plaster, 257
Cassowary, 61
Cat a difficult subject, 127
Chimpanzee, 43-44
Chloroform, use of, 322, 336
Chelonia, collecting, 08-70
mounting, 206-2U7
Chloride of lime, 88, 89
Clay, Colonel Cecil, moose collected and
presented by, 248
Clay as a filling material, 112-113. 119, 124,
167, 207, 211
preparation of, for use, 113, 1-18
Cleaning feathers, 65
skins of mammals, 102-104
Clothim; and food, 4
Collecting, best seasons for, 16
-boxes for insects, 323-324
by amateurs, 17
eggs of insects, 309-311
fishes, 71-19
insects, 320-327
jar for insects, 321
large mammal skins, 37-45
marine invertebrates, 80-89
nests ami eggs, 90-97
reptiles, 60-70
small birds, 46-57
small mammal skins, 24-36
shells, 85-89
specimens for groups, 237, 243-'.)44
Collectors, character of ideal, 3, 40
firearms for, 9, 12
golden rule for, 20
need of skilful, 1-3
outfits for, 8M5
Colors, how to handle, 253-255
kinds of, 252
list of, 23
necessity of recording, 22, 25, 43, 48, 71-
72
Coloring soft parts, 113-114, 253-255
Combs, furrier's steel, 36
" Coming to the Point," 221-222
Composition for use in modeling, 347
for snow scenes, 347
Corals, collecting and cleaning, 81-83
Corn meal as an absorbent, 59, 64, 198
Cornell University insect-house, 318
Corrosive sublimate solution, 151, 341, 345
Cotton, use of, in making bird skins, 52-54
Crabs, cleaning and mounting, 217-218
Cranes, 65
Crocodiles, collecting, 66-68
mounting, 204-20(1
skeletons of, 293-294
Crustaceans, cleaning and mounting, 217-
218
Cyanide of potash, 321, 323
DEAD game panels, 224
Deriwstes lardarius, 64, 336, 339
maculatus, 340
Designing groups, 237, 243. 244-245
Ducks and their treatment, 04
EAR, treatment of the, 45, 125, 160-162, 167
Echini, collecting and preserving, 84
Eggs, blowing, 95
collecting and preserving, 94-97
removing embryos from, 96
Eggs of insects, 309-311
how deposited, 309-310
how devitalized, 310
how preserved, 310-311
Elephant, prize won by, 141
Elephants, firearms for hunting, 12
preserving skin of, 41
Embryos, removal of, 95, 96
Emu, '61
Enamel varn'sh, Hendley's, 346
Entomological supplies, 337
Entomology, economic, 306
Envelopes for insects, 328
Excelsior, use of, 147, 148
Expression, 169, 171-172
Extermination, animals threatened with, 1
Eye, treatment of the, 44, 124, 160. 169, 172,
188. 196, 212
Eyes, cleaning glass, 177
FEATHERS, cleaning, 65, 198-201
distribution of, on bird's body, 182
Felidsj as taxidermic subjects, 171
Filling for dry skins, 33, 52, 60, 166
for necks, 1 66
skins of mammals, 129, 130, 132, 138
small mammals, 122-128
Fin shing a small mammal. 123-127
large mounted mammals, 150-155
Firearms, 9, 12
Fire-screens, feather, 225
Fish medallions, 213
Fishes, cartilaginous, treatment of, 77-78,
214-216
field notes on, 71
museum collections of, 208-209
mounting, 208-216
painting casts of, 257
painting mounted, 256
preserving entire, 73-75
skeletons of, 78, 294
skinning, 76-77
Flamingoes, group of, 232-233
Florida, collecting in, 80-87
Foot, treatment of the, 44, 192, 194
Fossil skeletons, 280
Fraine, Thomas W., 219
tire-screens by, 225
Frogs, grotesque groups of, 227
Furniture of taxidermic laboratory, 100
Furs and peltries, treatment of, 349
<}AME panels, 224
Garman, Samuel, quotation from, 203
INDKX.
Gasoline, 335
Geese, 64-65
Gelatine moulds, 265
Goode, Dr. G. Brown, 72, 234, 251
"American Fishes," by, 354
"Fishery Industries of the United
States,'" by, 354
Gorilla, 48, 44, 130
Government Museum at Madras, 208
Grease, on skins, 50, 04, 05
removal of, from insects, 335
removal of, from birds, 1 91-201
Grotesque groups, 227
Group of antelope, 235
of bultaloss, 234-235, 246
of coyotes, 2:i4
of flamingoes, 232-233
of moose, 235, 247
of musk oxen, 235
Groups by European taxidermists, 230, 239
for special exhibition, 239
of birds, 232, 234
of orang-utans, 231, 232
Group-making, general principles of, 237-
240
with birds, 249-250
with large mammals, 244—248
with small mammals, 241-244
with reptiles, 250-251
Guides in hunting and collecting, 4
Gum for labels, 348
HA i it, treatment of. 138, 127, 150, 169
gluing on, 155-157
Hand of anthropoid ape, 130
Hares, see Rabbits
Hatleria punctata. 204
Hawks, group of, by F. A. Lucas, 224
Head, finishing a small mammal's, 124
finishing a bird's, 188
Heads, exhortation to sportsmen regarding,
158
how to cut off, 1."9
how to skin, preserve, and mount, 159-
178
Health, preservation of. 4
Heron, neck of a, 195-1 '.Mi
prize won by F. S. Webster with, 195-196
skins, 59, 60, 65
Ili'suiii-hiix i/fixfitx, '.'14
Holland, Dr. W. .!., author of Part V., 61,
305-888
advice from, to insect collectors, 324, 327
collecting-boxes devised by, 3'.'3
Japanese insects collected by, :i:!:;
" Homes Without Hands," 93"
Hornaday, William T.. advocacy of painted
backgrounds l>v, 221 -'''.'•>
use of clay by, 1 1'.'
prizes won by, 141, •-".2, 233
new method »! mounting hats by. 127
development of i-lav CUMTI d manikin by,
140
method of head-mounting developed by,
163
Hornaday, William T., new treatment of
feline tongues by, 174
new method of making ape's hands by,
130-131
new method of mounting fishes by, 211,
213-214
museum groups advocated by, 231, 232,
234
groups of mammals mounted bv, 231,
334-235
Human figure in groups, £39-240
Hunting, hints on, 13, 14
the alligator and crocodile, 07
Hygiene, principles of, 5
ICE, artificial, 220
Inflation of larvae, 312-316
Insect labels, 329, 337
nets, 3:0
pests, 336, 339-341
pins, 329-330
Insects, boxes for, 335-336
breeding-cages for, 317, 318
carrying-boxes for. 333
classification of, 305-:i(>s
collecting perfect, 320-327
collecting-boxes for, 323-324
diving, 333
eggs of, 309-311
eiieet of light on, 336
house for breeding, 318
killing, best me! hods of, 321-322
mounts for. 329
mounting. 329-332
mould in collections of, 334-3II5
pinning, 330-332
poisoning collections of, I 3(5
ravages of, 306
relaxing dried, 334
removing grease from, 335
Ectting-boarda for, 33o-:i:;i
stuffing, :!:::;
Invertebrates, marine, 80-89
Ward's catalogue of, SI
Iron square, the. 130-137
Irons for necks of mammals, 132
legs of mammals, 130, 131, 145
JAVKU.E water, for skeletons, 2S7
Jenks, Professor J. W. P., author of
'• Steele's Popular Zoology," 351
Jesup, Morris K., biid groups ordered by.
235
"KEY to North American Birds," 48, 352
" Kiliing-knife," 15
-jar, for insects. :;•_'!
Knives for a collector, 15, 49
i, M-.I-I IM,, 2:i, 72, 94. 97. 337, ".-is
Laboratory, taxidermie-, 99-101
facertilia, Of,, •.'(>•.'. v;n:;
fjamellirostres, treatment of. d
Larva1, breeding and rearing, 310-319
collecting, 811
360
INDEX.
Larvae, drying, 315
inflation of, 316
mounting, 315
preparation of, 312
transformation of, 312
leaves, artificial, 2''0
Leg-bones, value of,' 32, 33, 42
Leg-irons, best attachment for, 136-137
how to prepare and attach, 143-147
Leg-wires, attachment of, in birds, 193
Legs, of large mammals, making, 130-147
of small bird, wiring, 184-186
of small mammals, making, 116-118
treatment of, in skinning, 33, 59, 00, 61
Lepidoptera, 317-318
Ligamentary skeletons, cleaning, 280
mounting, 288
Lion, 171-172
Liquors, hurtfulness of intoxicating, 6
Lizards, 66, 202-204
Lobst-T, how to clean and mount, 217-218
Longipennes, treatment of, 02
Lucas, Frederic A., 69, 219, 223, 270
work in National Museum by, 288
group of turtles by, 250
group of hawks by, 224
wall-cases of birds by, 224
MACERATING skeletons, 282-284
Mammals, collecting, best seasons for, 16
gluing hair on mounted, 155-157
groups of large, '..31, 234
groups of small, 234, 241, 244
mounting, general principles of, 109-114
mounting groups of, sec Groups
mounting heads of, 163-178
mounting medium7sized, 129-134
mounting large, 135-149
mounting small, 115-128
mounting skeletons of, 289-293
painting mounted, 254-255
relaxing dry skins of, 102
skeleton'./, ing, 273-279
trapping and poisoning small, 18
treatment of skins of small, 24-36
treatment of skins of large, 37-45
Manikin, advantages of the, 141, 142
how to construct the best, 142-149
required for largest birds, 193
Maynard rifle, recommendation of the, 12,
13, 15
Medallions, bird, by F. S. Webster, 225
fish, 213
Measurements, of birds, 20, 48, 191
of large mammals, 37-39
of small mammals, 24
Medicines, collector's outfit of, 5, 6
Microscopic slides of insects' eggs, 311
Modeling an open mouth, 172-177
-tools, 173
Monkeys, treatment of, 43-44
Moose, group of, in National Museum, 247
Montana, natural accessories from, 247
Moth, destructiveness of the codling, 300
Moths in museum collections, 340, 341
Mould, in insect collections, 344, 345
precautions against, 61, 348
Moulds, gelatine, 265
making "piece," 259-263
making waste, 263-205
Mouth, expression of the, 171
modeling the, 172
Muriatic acid, use of, 81, 88. 89
Museum, American, 109, 236, 249
British, 235
, Comparative Zoology, 202, 203
Government, at Madras, 208
United (States National, 97, 109, 209, 221,
234, 235, 241, 251, 270, 343
NAPHTHALINE crystals, use of, 335,342, 343
Neck -rons. 107, 130, 132, 138
treatment of the, 60, 65, 159, 165, 166,
109, 195
of a heron, 1 95
of a trophy head, 159, 165
Needles, extra long, for sewing manikins,
107
Nests, collecting, 91-93
displaying, 94
Nets for insects, 320
Nose, treatment of the, 44
Nostrils, treatment of the, 169
Notes, field, 22
OOLOGIST, outfit for an, 91
work of an, 90-97
" Oology of New England," 225, 353
Ophidire, 60, 202
Opossums, group of, 241
Orang utans, groups of, 231, 233
treatment of, 43, 130
" Ornithologist and Oologist," 355
Ostrich, 61, 193
Outfit for collecting insects, 320-324
for general collecting, 9
of medicines, 6
for an oologist, 91
for sportsmen and travellers, 11
Outlines of dead animals, 22, 25
Owl, snowy, 192
PACKING bird- skins, 56, 61
corals, 82
eggs, 97
insects, 332-333
skeletons, 291 •
Painting finished specimens, 170, 218, 252-
258"
materials, 252
on papier-mache, 155
plaster casts, 257
Papier-mache, how to make, 151-153
rustic case made of, 223
use of, 151, 154, 173, 246
Parasites, 73
Passions, expression of the higher, 171
Pedestals, foe skeletons, 292
Pelican, 62
Peltries and furs, treatment of, 349
INDEX.
361
Penguin, 63
Photographing animals, 21
Pinning insects, ^30-332
Plaster Paris as an absorbent. 50-64, 65,
198-301
casts, 21, '-V>
tablets for reptiles, 202-204
use of, 163-164, ins-jdi, 220
Plumage, cleaning soiled, 198-201
Poison, effects of, on taxidermist, 344
Poisoning furs and rugs, 344
-jar for insects, 321
mounted specimens and collections, 341
skins and mammals, 32, 110, 148, 151
textiles and skin clothing, 343
wild animals, 18
Polishing hardwood, 343
Principles of bird-mounting, 183-190
of group-making, £57-240, 249-251
of mammal-mounting, 109-114
Proportions of animals, 112
Pulp, paper, 152
Python, ::02
RABBITS, mounting, 1'27
Rat?, necessity of guarding against, 33
Ray, author vanquished by a villainous, 215
Ravs, treatment of, 77-78, 214-216
Relaxing skins of mammals, 102-104
Reptiles, casts of, by Joseph Palmer, 270
collecting, 06-70
groups of, 250
mounting. 202-207
new method for alcoholic, 202-203
Wnnobnti, 210
Ribs, attachment of, 298-299
Richardson, Jennets, groups of birds by,
2:50, 249, 250
preservation of evergreens by, 221
Rooks, artificial, 228-229
Rugs, 227
SALOMETER, use of the, 30, 31
Salt, use of, 30, 33, 162
Salt-and-alum bath, oO, 31, 102, 115, 127
Saurians, 00-08
Saw-fish, 214-215
Scapula, attachment of, 302
Screens, feather fire-, 225
Sea-eggs, 84
-porcupines and -urchins, 84
Serpents, 06, 202, 293
Setting-boards for insects, 330
Setting-needle, 332
Sewing skins, hints on, 106
Sex in birds, determination of, 56
Sharks, 77
difficulties in preserving, 214, 215
Shells, cleaning, 87-89
fresh-water, 83
land, 85
"living "and "dead," 85
marine, 8'!
Shooting, hints on, 13, 14
Shot-gun, use of the, 14, 15
Shields for trophy heads, 170
Shrinkage in mounted specimens, 150, 21-3
Skeletons, bleaching, 28o
collecting, 271-279
cleaning by macerating, 282-28^
fish, 78, 294, 295
field-work on small mammal, 273-275
fossil, 280
mounting large disarticulated, 296-303
mounting small, 28b, 295
packing, :J79
repairing damaged, 272
1 "rough," 271
selection of, 271
snake, (if 5
tools for mounting, 303
various methods of cleaning, 282 285,
287
Skeletonizing birds, 276-278
cetaceans, 279
fishes, 78
mammals, 273-279
reptiles, 278
Sketching from nature, 3, 4, 21, 22, 71
Skin, superfluous folds of, 134, 149, 167
Skins, cleaning bird-, 181, 182
cloth lining for old, 182
making alcoholic fish, 70-78
making alligator and crocodile, 66-68
making dry mammal, 32-36
making largo bird, 58-65
making small bird, 47-50
relaxing bird-. 179-181
shrinking power of, 214-215
Skinning apes and monkeys, 43
crocodilian s, r>~
deer's ear, 161
fishes. 76
large birds, 58-65
large mammals, 39-42
and preserving mammal heads. 40, 159,
1(52
sharks, etc., 77
small birds, 47-50
small mammals, "20-29
reptiles, 00-70
turtles, 09
Skulls, how to dispose of small, 34
value of, 32
Snakes, (Hi
Snow, artificial. 220
Society of American Taxidermists, 141,
10:;, I1.";, •.'-.".'
Space in groups, 238
Specimens, half-spoiled, '11
selection of. '.Mi
XjifiKri/tx i-oriiifi'it, author's struggle with,
206
S/ilii nisi-1, treatment of, 62
Spirits, use of, .sw Alcohol
Sponges, collecting and cleaning, 81-82
S(|iiirrels, groups of, 242, '24:;
Star-fishes, collecting and preparing, 83
StiM.rn, use of, 200
" Steele's Popular Zoology," 47, 351
862
INDEX.
titcganopodcs, 62
Straw, use of, 129, 13:2, 133, 205, 207
Struthiones, treatment of, 01
Strychnine, 18, 345
" Sugaring " to capture insects, 320
Nuiihe, 10:!
Swan, 64, 05
Sweat-box, for relaxing skins, 180
TARLE groups, 224
Tail, wiring the, 118, 132
attitude of, 120. 172
treatment of a bird's, 54, 11)0
Taxidermy, ornamental, 219-229, 250
possibilities in, 149, 222, 224, 250
common faults in, 109
Taxidermist, 53
materials necessary for, 100-101
requirements in successful, 104, 108, 154
tools necessary for, 100
Taxidermists, Society of American, 231
organization of, 232
exhibitions of, 227
gifts by, 219
prizes awarded by, 141, 195, 222, 223,
224
productions of, 219
Teeth, how to clean, 176. 206
Temperance, value of habits of, 0
Thread, 108
Tiger, facial expression of, 171-172
'• Till the Doctor Comes," 6
Tin, sheet, in cars, 107
Tiuca, 340
Tongue, treatment of the, 174-176, 206
Tools, for bird taxidermist, 183
for general taxidermist, 100
Tools, for oologist, 91
for professional collector, 9
for traveller and sportsman, 11
Tow, use of, 147, 187, 207, 211
Trappers, directions for, 314
Trapping mammals, 19
Turpentine, use of, in cleaning feathers, 65,
198-201
in painting, 114
Turtles, collecting, 08-70
mounting, 200-207
skeletons of, 294
UMBRELLA, use of, in catching insects, 321
VARNISH cutter, 347
Hendley's enamel, 346
WALL cases, 220-223
Ward, Professor Henry A. , 226, 234
first large mammal group ordered by, 232
Ward, Henry L., West Indian seals col-
lected by, 2
Ward's Natural Science Establishment, 136,
204, 231
Water, artificial, 220
Wax, use of, in mouth modeling, 170-177
Webster, Frederic S., 181), 204, 219, 228,
232, 233
bird medallions by, 225-226
prize won by, 195, 224
" Wounded Heron." by, 224
Weight of animals, 39
Wicker sheimer solution, 347
Winding a mounted bird, 189-190
Wing, treatment of the, 59, 188
Wings, spread, mounting birds with, 194
Wire, how to anneal iron, 116
Wire supports for mammals, 131
supports ior birds, lt'3
Wiring a bird, 184-186
a small mammal, 110-120
Wood duck, by F. S. Webster, 233
GEORGE H. SOWDON. FREDERIC S. WEBSTER.
(Formerly of Washington.)
SOWDON & WEBSTER,
738 BROADWAY, NEW YORK,
KXPF.RTS IN TMK 1'KK.PARATION OF
Zoological Material.
Our new firm will now successfully compete with the best
establishments of a similar kind in this country.
We are ready to furnish and prepare
Groups of Mammals and Birds,
for museums and the trade ; also, heads of large game,
artistic articles for household ornament and utility, such
as picture groups, panels, screens, and many original
novelties in fur and feather, unique in design,
ALL OF WHICH WILL BE ABSOLUTELY MOTH PROOF!
Mr. Webster's long professional experience and reputation
as an expert taxidermist is well known and established. Under
his personal superintendence of the large trained force em-
ployed by us in this important branch of our business> the
very best work obtainable is guaranteed.
WE ARE ALSO MANUFACTURING FURRIERS.
With Mr. Sowdon's 30 years experience in the trade, we
offer a full line of
Fur Garments, Animal Rugs,
Robes and Fine Furs of every description.
We carry a full line of fur stock, raw and dressed. With
competent designers, fitters and cutters, our patrons are
assured of good fitting and well-made garments at reasonable
prices. Correspondence solicited.
In Mounting Mammals, Birds, Reptiles and Fishes,
ENTERPRISING TAXIDERMISTS WILL
* * USK GOOD GLASS EYKS • *
THAT ARE TRUE TO NATURE IX SHAPE, COLOR, AND SIZE.
The best procurable are those made by
DEMUTH BROTHERS,
89 Walker Street, New York.
Mannfacturers of FINE GLASS EYES of every description,
from life studies of living animals.
WHITE CORNERED EYES foi the larger animals a specialty, and eyes
are made to order on short notice when colored sketches are furnished.
The attention of American taxidermists is called to the fact that for eight
years past our glass eyes have been used exclusively by Mr. Hornaday in all the
animals mounted by him and under his direction in the U. S. National Museum,
and reference to him as to the quality and cost of our goods is hereby made,
by permission.
Send for our price-list and diagram of sizes.
WE ALSO MANUFACTURE
r* T ACC QHAT^FQ of all shapes and sizes for the protection of
VJLjiVOO On.TV.L'LiO mounted birds, flowers, wax fruit, etc.
SCIENTIFIC GLASSWARE
GAUGE TUBING AND CYLINDERS,
for Distillers,
Hrewers, etc.
All kinds of glass work done to order. Established 1862. The oldest and best
firm on the continent in the manufacture of Artificial Eyes and Glass Shades.
Catalogue free upon application, and careful attention given to mail orders.
Glass Factory on Newtown Creek, near Penny Bridge, Brooklyn, E.D.,
New York
QTANDARD . SPECIALTIES
IN
MUSEUMJARDWARE.
/TJHE undersigned manufactures the Patent Brackets
1 and Racks for adjustable shelves (Fig. i), also
Patent Monitor Locks (Fig. 2). These are arranged
for all styles of Museum and Book Cases, French
Windows, eic. Adopted and recommended by the
principal Museums in the United States. Special new
and improved machinery for cutting and polishing
Minerals, Petrified Wood, etc., by steam or foot power,
on hand or furnished to order (Fig. 3).
Full information given on application to
ELISHA T. JENKS.
Middleborough,
Plymouth Co.,
Mass.
11"
A
FiG2.
The Best are the Cheapest
THE * UNRIVALLED * SUPERIORITY
OF THESE
Museum Case Locks,
Brackets and Racks,
is fully attested by their adoption and general
use in such Institutions as the following :
Fio.L
Smithsonian Institution,
United States National Museum,
Museum of Comparative Zoology,
Peabody Museum, Cambridge.
Boston Society of Natural History,
College of New Jersey, Princeton.
Yalu College, Vassar College,
Brown University,
Peabody Academy of Science,
College of Charleston, S. C.,
and many others.
IN MAKING UP YOUR
Groups of Mammals, Birds and Reptiles,
ORDER ALL YOUR
Artificial Leaves, Plants and Vines,
OF EVERY DESCRIPTION,
FROM
PELLETIER & CO.,
Successors to C. PELLETIER,
MANUFACTURERS AND IMPORTERS,
(ESTABLISHED 1856,)
135 Wooster Street, New York.
For the last eight years we have supplied the U. S. National Museum with all
the artificial leaves used by Mr. Hornaday in his animal groups, and refer to
him by permission. The most of the leaves thus used were made to order, on
short notice and at reasonable prices, from samples furnished us. Fine leaves
and tropical plants are our specialty. Let us know your wants, and we will
supply them promptly, and to your satisfaction.
OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO MUSEUM BUILDERS.
C. DORFLINGER & SONS,
GLASS MAN
White Mills, Wayne Co., Penn.
NEW YORK OFFICE : 36 MURRAY STREET.
ANATOMICAL AND SPECIMEN JARS
OF EVERY DESCRIPTION A SPECIALTY.
Our Jars are used largely by the Smithsonian Institution and United States
National Museum, and give such satisfaction as is found only in first-class
productions.
SKINS OF
MAMMALS, BIRDS,
REPTILES, ETC.
We have always on hand a large assortment of well prepared
Skins for Taxidermists, also finely mounted specimens of native
and foreign Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Fishes, etc.
Catalogue 150 pages. Price 30 cents.
MOUNTED HEADS,
OF
DEER, ELK, MOOSE, CARIBOU, BUFFALO, ELEPHANT,
AFRICAN ANTELOPE, ETC.
Also HEAD SKINS AND ANTLERS. Custom work done in
Taxidermy, and in preparing and mounting skeletons.
WARD'S
Natural Science Establishment,
ROCHESTER, N.Y.
Minerals, Rocks, Fossils, Casts of Fossils, Geological Relief Maps, Models
and Diagrams, Archaeological Specimens, and Birds' Eggs.
Skins and Skeletons of Animals, Invertebrates, Crustaceans, Shells, Corals,
etc., Anatomical Models, Human Skeletons, Skulls and Skeletons of Races, etc.
WRITE FOR CIRCULAR.
Taxidermists : Naturalists :
Before you can properly understand the practice of Taxidermy,
it will be necessary to engage in the work, and attain efficiency by
actual practice. To accomplish the best results, it is of vital import-
ance to have the proper tools and materials. Poor tools and
materials produce poor results. See to it then, that you are amply
provided, and before you purchase, write us for our 24 page
Catalogue, devoted entirely to SUPPLIES FOR THE
NATURALIST.
We can not only supply any and all of the materials named in
the preceding pages, but we can also supply you with
BIRDS' EGGS, BIRDS' SKINS,
MOUNTED BIRDS AND MAMMALS,
AND
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of which we carry thousands of specimens in stock. We specially
desire to call your attention to our line of supplies for the
Ornithologist, Oologist, Entomologist,
Botanist and Taxidermist,
Such as glass eyes of fine grades, leaves and grasses for case
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ing on Natural History.
ALSO PUBLISHERS OF THE
ORNITHOLOGIST AND OOLOGIST.
The only periodical in this country treating directly on matters of
special interest to the Field Collector. Price, $1.00 per year.
Frank Blake Webster Company,
MUSEUM AND SUPPLY DEPOT,
HYDE PARK, MASS.
Office: 409 WASHINGTON ST., BOSTON, MASS.
FOREST AND STREAM
ROD AND GUN.
You may go shooting and get no game, or fishing and catch no fish ;
but you cannot buy a copy of the Forest and Stream (this week or next
week or any week) without finding it brimful of capital sketches of
shooting and fishing, and papers on natural history and sportsman's
travel and experiences, and discussions of yachting and canoeing. A
paper for men.
Forest and Stream believes in the recreation found in the haunts
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life out of doors. It reflects the spirit and records the experiences of the
great army of outers. If you have any sympathy with these things, the
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your home every week. Send for a specimen copy (free on mention of
this book), or $4.00 for a year's subscription. Sold by all newsdealers.
BOOKS FOR SPORTSMEN AND NATURALISTS.
We make a specialty of books on
NATURAL HISTORY, ANGLING, SHOOTING. WOODCRAFT,
YACHTING, CANOEING, THE DOG, AND OUTDOOR
LIFE, RECREATION, AND STUDY.
Send for our free illustrated Catalogue of Forest and Stiaim Books
FOREST AND STREAM PUBLISHING COMPANY,
No. 318 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.
Quo YGARS in CRG JuncLG.
The Experiences of a Hunter and Naturalist in India,
Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula, and Borneo.
By WILLIAM T. HORNADAY,
Chief Taxidermist U. S. National Museum.
d vol., 8vo, pp. xxii. 512, two folding maps and 51 illustrations. Price, $3,00.
THE EXPEDITION AND ITS OBJECT.
THE author relates the experiences of a hunter and naturalist in India,
Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula, and Borneo ; and certainly no richer
hunting-ground could be found anywhere else in the world. Mr.
Hornaday is chief taxidermist in the United States National Museum.
He was formerly connected with Professor Ward's Natural Science
Museum of Rochester, N. Y., and his expedition to the East was in the
interests of that establishment. While his book is in some respects like
such works as those which Du Chaillu and Sir Samuel W. Baker have
written to delight and interest a multitude of readers, he has imparted a
vast amount of information, a large part of which is new and of the great-
est moment to the naturalist.
Mr. Hornaday started from New York in 1876. From England he
went finally south to India, arriving at Bombay; he went across country
to Benares ; from here he made an expedition to the north to Cawnpore
and Agra. From Benares he worked his way to Calcutta, journeyed down
the Bay of Bengal to Madras ; southward again, he made a complete cir-
cuit of Ceylon, than to the Malay Peninsula, and finally to Borneo, where
his adventures with the orangutan were met, ending his two years of fruit-
ful and entirely successful search. The illustrations are many, and most
of them are taken from Mr. Hornaday's own sketches. Though it may
seem to be stating much, it certainly may be truly said that a more inter-
esting book of travel and adventures was never published.
" Decidedly the most interesting and instructive book of travel and adventure in
the East Indies it has ever been our good fortune to read." — Baltimore News.
" An entertaining volume. . . . The author has proved his ability to write a
good book of travel." — Morning Post (London).
" To the naturalist, Mr. Hornaday's book cannot but be as deeply-interesting as
to the sportsman and traveller. ... It deserved to be distinguished from among
the mass of books cf sporting adventure.'* — Melbourne Argus.
" One of the most entertaining and instructive books of its kind t^at has been
published." — Sun Francisco Post.
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